Why Animal Testing Can Save Our Lives

Many years ago, people follow particular traditions that involves animal sacrifice. According to biblical history, animals were often killed to use as sacrifices to God. In Genesis, Abraham sacrificed a ram after he was stopped by an angel to kill his son as a sign of full obedience to God. Clearly, animal sacrifices has been accepted ever since our ancestors had developed various religions where they believed meat offerings were pleasant to the eyes of their God. As one of the most complicated ethical issues of today, animal testing can be viewed in the same way with the historical animal sacrifices. As humans in past were saved spiritually by offering animals, it is reasonable to conclude that animal testing is a kind of sacrifice that humans must do to save lives physically and emotionally. Why Animal Testing Can Save Our Lives One of the primary reasons why animal testing is considered helpful for the advance of man is the fact that it plays a significant role in the progress of medicine. Newly created drugs are safer to use by humans if they are tested on animals first. Some people believes that it is unethical and improper to use a drug if it has not been tested on animals before (Hayhurst, 20). They argue that it is the best possible way to determine if a drug is safe or not. They clearly have a point in this argument. Apparently, they believe that human lives are much important than animal lives. â€Å"Many people who argue for animal testing agree that it's unfortunate that animals must sometimes suffer, but they feel that the pain is a small price to pay if it advances science and produces new cures for deadly diseases such as cancer and AIDS† (Hayhurst, 21). On the other hand, people who are against animal testing argue that animal lives should also be treated with utmost importance and should not be used as sacrifices to attain something. One of the points of these people are the fact that some cosmetic manufacturers also engage in animal testing to try their products. They believe that such products are â€Å"unnecessary† for animals' health to be sacrificed (Hayhurst, 21). There is the blinding of mice to enable cosmetic manufacturers to produce a new kind of mascara and other. They also argue that animal reactions to drugs can be quite different from that of humans. â€Å"Because of the irreconcilable biological differences between animals and human beings, the results of animal tests cannot be applied to human beings with any degree of confidence† (qtd. in Lovegrove, 14). However, it is the issue of morality and ethics that is enveloping the entire argument against animal testing. Many people on this side believes that animals have the right to live and that humans cannot just treat them in any way just because they can. Apparently, both sides of the issue raises important points that should be considered to achieve a fair and justified treatment of the issue. Clearly, there is a lot at stake here whether in the morality or the medical advancement of human beings but both ways still considers what is good for man. Nevertheless, the problem with some animal rights activists is that, â€Å"there is too much emphasis on ethics and too little emphasis on what they perceive as scientific benefits† (qtd. in Connor). In our present situation where diseases are rampant, it is important that people must be receptive and open-minded enough to consider tough decisions such as supporting animal testing. It is also important that people weigh the circumstances of what animal research could do in the existence and survival of mankind in the future. The problem with some activists is that they focus so much on what is happening today that they tend to forget what could happen in the future. Conclusion Our world today is experiencing so many medical challenges such as the spread of A(H1N1) virus, cancer, AIDS and other diseases; therefore, it is important that we consider sacrificing something today to enable us to prepare for the future. In addition, these animals also benefit from the testing as their future generations also benefits from the medical progress to which they contribute. Hence, it is quite reasonable to conclude that some tough decisions and actions should be made to make this place better and safer for all of us. It is for the greater good that a few must suffer to attain something better in the future.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase

In the beginning, cyclin-dependent kinase 1 CDK1 for example, is a cell division cycle protein homolog 2, regarding a research paper that explains the role of CDK1 in the human breast cancer cells. They found that CDK1 rather than any types of CDK is fatal to the mutated version of MYC- dependent cancer that leads to a depletion of the oncogene in human cancer cells. The study reveals that the reason for the MYC breast cancer cells duplation is targeting CDF1 exhibit any other CDK cell lines. The primary purpose was to figure out the mechanism of CDK1 inhibition which controls and target the breast cancer cells in human and both phosphorylation and expression of MYC during the cell cycle process. To confirm that, they used siRNA knockdown to measure the expression level of MYC. Further, other than any mutants, apoptosis leading to the uncontrolled cell proliferation especially in human breast cancer disease that was measured by the detection of caspase-cleaved cytokeratin 18 using flow cytometry technique. The controls that were used are estrogen receptor ER-positive and ER-negative, they found increased at the number of the protein activity for the positive and the negative correlation, but the gene expression was high at the positive one and decreased to zero at the negative control (that means no reaction between them). They confirmed that CDK1 is essential for cell division and necessary for driving the cell cycle in all cell types.To initiate intracellular signaling pathways and stimulate the cell cycle entry, mitogens substance bind to the cell surface receptor with the activation form of GTPase Ras that activates MAP kinase cascade. That will lead to the expression of encoding gene of the transcription regulatory protein like MYC. Moreover, MYC will increase the expression of many late response genes, including some genes that lead to increased G1-CDK activity (cyclin D Cdk4), which triggers the phosphorylation of members of the tumor suppressor protein (Retinoblastoma protein) family. The inactive form of RB proteins can release the E2F target genes to initiate the transcription process in G1 and S phases, to enhance the G1- CDK and S- CDK activities and the phosphorylation of RB proteins forming a positive feedback loop.

Autobiography of a Face Essays

and now he’ll shrivel up like a prune if you let him. With any luck, I’ll have him holding his own fishing pole by this spring, and I’ve already got my eyes on a little pair of water skis. Who knows, maybe 20 years from now, he’ll be writing an autobiography about how growing up on the water help shape his life too.†¦ Irish Autobiographies Adapted for Film This image of mid-twentieth century Ireland embodied in the themes of emigration, cultural isolation, economic depression, literary censorship and religious conservatism have become a fixed concept in the collective imaginative and cultural production. At the start of the twenty-first century, far from seeking to exorcise such associations, Joe Cleary has noted that "the period is repeatedly evoked because it serves as the definitive image of the anti-modern†¦ Online classes or Face-to-face? Students learn at different paces and different ways. Online classes is one of the ways for students to learn different subjects, and it proves to be a good for some students. Online classes allow you work at your own pace which most students enjoy. The other way is the traditional sitting in a desk, listening to a teacher/professor teach on and on, and trying to stay awake until its over. Classroom makes you have a good sense of time management. Students need to†¦ Multicultural Education Autobiography and Reflection Throughout the entire course, as a class we have covered a variety of different topics ranging from ethnicity to gender and sexual orientation. Some of the topics covered in our class were easier to discuss while being able to express our own thoughts. Other topics were topics that we had been aware of, yet we did not feel so comfortable discussing because as humans we tend to care what others might think of us when we speak up. For example, sexual†¦ race, gender or beliefs. Gandhi: An Autobiography and The Help portray multiple insights of the world in the 1900’s compared to modern day society. Social justice is a major theme in The Help and Gandhi: An Autobiography. In these two books we see how society can be a cruel mistress. How people of different races are treated throughout time and how the main characters never give up on hope for a better future in our community. In Gandhi: An Autobiography and The Help, the social aspect of†¦ Introduction In 1946, the book simply titled Autobiography of a Yogi was published. It was written by a hitherto unknown saint from India named Paramahansa Yogananda. Paramahansa Yogananda was an Indian Yogi who left the shores of India in 1920 to teach God realization to people of the West. In this inspiring book, he describes his meetings with miracle performing yogis in India such as the levitating saint, a tiger fighting swami, a yogi who bilocates and other great saints search for a guru, and†¦ Sexual Autobiography Shaping my sexual behavior was generally influenced by my mom. I learned to be dependent on men and use safe sex through media. Gender sex roles also placed me to be secretive with my sex life and nurturing. My body image makes me insecure when it comes to intimacy. There were no specific sexual guidelines that my family made me follow. I was raised in a family where I was able to explore and have my own opinions about sexual situations. Not having guidelines or a path made†¦ Lucy Grealy's Autobiography of a Face "Language supplies us with ways to express ever subtle levels of meaning, but does that imply language gives meaning, or robs us of it when we are at a loss to name things?"(Grealy 44). Throughout her childhood and young adulthood, Lucy Grealy attempts to create a self-image based on her looks, through the reactions of others, and her own hopefulness, but these fail and she learns to forget her image completely. It is at this time of forgetting her image that†¦ need to take big steps and make sacrifices. After reading the autobiography of Malcolm X its admirable that he became such an intellectual man even thought he didn 't finish school and had a difficult time pronouncing words. He was someone that went through many changes in his life to fight for equality and never give up on his dreams. His passion and his aspirations in life to fight against racial discrimination in America help him face all his academic struggles and to become a intellectual and knowledgeable†¦ From an Electrician to a Teacher: An Autobiography â€Å"The heart of human excellence often begins to beat when you discover a pursuit that absorbs you, frees you, challenges you, and gives you a sense of joy, meaning and passion.† – Angel Chernoof* I firmly believe that to be successful and flourish in education and childhood learning, your heart must lead you to this passion – as my heart did a year ago. Coming out of high school, my dreams were far beyond teaching and spending a lifetime discovering†¦

This is a n Accounting principle subject. The assessment and case Study

This is a n Accounting principle subject. The assessment and will be send by file .pdf - Case Study Example Professional Competence and Due Care A professional accountant is expected to demonstrate diligence when executing his duties and should abide by professional standards when executing his professional duties. Considering whether it is within the mandate of the accountant to counter-sign checks and ensuring that the hotel receives professional services in line with the underlying regulations of the accounting profession would translate to the observation of professional competence and due care. Confidentiality A professional accountant must observe confidentiality of information under his care and should not in any way disclose such information to unauthorized third party. Not disclosing the findings about the whole scenario to any third party and not taking advantage of the findings for personal gain would amount to maintaining the principle of confidentiality. Professional Behavior A professional accountant should act within applicable laws and regulations and shun any act that like ly to discredit professionalism. Ensuring that services remain within the law and avoiding any action that would put the profession into questions amount to professional behavior. Q2. a. The parties involved in the case include the company’s directors (husband and wife), the staff of the boutique hotel, the financial institution that mortgaged the hotel, and the community as a whole. For the company’s directors, especially that wife, the transactions are happening in her absence. Therefore, there is a possibility that taking no action would result into huge financial losses on her side through continuous check withdrawals of the recently acquired mortgage for the hotel. For the mortgaging firm, there is a likelihood that the hotel will not be able to pay back its mortgage leading to a huge financial loss. However, if the loan is secured, the mortgaging firm would recover the amount through seizure of the company’s principal asset, a boutique hotel. All the staff of the company would lose their job in the near future because the company would not be in a position to pay them. Moreover, there is likelihood that the company may be declared bankrupt. The closure of the company would have negative impact on the community where it is located because it would cut down job opportunities and disengage those who are currently employed courtesy of the company. b. If I decided to take action, I would consult the audit committee of the company, if there is any and summon the board of directors to shed light on the harmful effects of such fraudulent dealings. I would give my stand to the company’s directors by stating pointblank that I am not ready to be party to the fraudulent deal. First, I would ensure that I act within the fundamental principles of the accounting profession. I would then identify specific factors relevant to the conflict resolution process, which in this case is the unauthorized check withdrawals made by one of the directors of the company. I would then decide the best course of action by weighing the likely consequence of each alternative course action. I would then document the discussions held and decisions arrived at during my discussion with the directors and the audit committee. If the practice persists, I would then contact relevant professional body and legal advisors. A professional

HIV Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

HIV - Research Paper Example HIV has not had a cure yet. However, antiretroviral drugs are use to slow down the immune system cells’ destruction. The discussion in this paper focuses on HIV phylogenetic classification and morphology, transmission and replication in the host, virulence and pathogeniciy factors, treatment, epidemiology and public control methods. Phylogenetic classification and morphology According to Fauci and Lane (n.d), HIV virion has a structure that is icosahedra. This virion contains external spikes. The spikes form from two main protein envelopes namely external gp120 and the transmembrane gp 41. On the surface of the infected cell, the viron buds form. These buds comprises of numerous host proteins. The main host proteins are Major Histocompartibility complex (MHC) class I and II antigens, which are incorporate into the host’s lipid bilayer. The strains classified as HIV-1 fall into three distinct groups. These categories are M or Major, Outlier or O and N or New or non M/non O. Group M nearly responsible for global pandemic. Group M forms properly defined clusters on phylogenetic trees. M group subtypes are labeled A-D, F-H, J-K. Other relevant clusters are circulating recombinant forms or CRFs. These recombination events form because of divergent HIV strains within host individuals. Transmission and replication For all persons infected with HIV, there is a variable degree of viruses in genital secretions and blood. This is the case regardless of whether or not the patient has visible symptoms. The transmission of HIV virus occurs when infected blood or secretions are exposed to tissues of the eye, vigina, anal area, and mouth, broken skin such as cuts or needle punctures. The most common transmission modes are sexual contact, needles sharing and infected mothers to newborns during labor pregnancy or breastfeeding. HIV is an RNA virus. The main process associated with HIV RNA is reverse transcription of genomic RNA to DNA. This process is facilitated b y enzyme reverse transcriptase. Replication cycle starts when gp 120 protein binds with high affinity. Once gp120 binds to CD4, it undergoes a conformational change that facilitates binding to one of the co-receptor groups. After the envelope, protein binds to CD4 molecule fusion occurs with the host cell membrane through the exposed gp41 molecule. The virus then penetrates plasma membrane of target cell then coiling upon to combine both the virion and immune system cells (Lama and Planelles, 2007). Virulence and pathogenicity factors HIV buds through the cell membrane. The virus is characterized by a capacity to cause disease. One attribute of HIV is replication and transmission, toxic, adherence and attachment and aggressiveness. For the virus, attachment to host immune system cell membrane is essential for virulence. This provides the opportunity to combine with the cells and cause reduction in protecting the body from diseases. In order to persist in the host, HIV virus has to r eplicate making it contagious. As a result, the virus is infectious. In order to survive, it has to remain aggressive. Aggressiveness comes with the ability to invade, multiply and survive in the tissues of the host. This makes HIV resistance to host defense mechanism. This virus also has high toxicity, which makes it possible to invade as many cells as possible. As a result, host immune

Injuries and losses during the 2012 Olympics Essay

Injuries and losses during the 2012 Olympics - Essay Example This essay discusses that since the Olympic site has been opened to visitors and athletes for ticket sales and athletes’ training, the persons at the site are presumed to be lawful visitors to the site. As a result the rights of the various athletes and visitors at the site, and the duty toward the safety of those lawfully at the site are covered by the Occupiers’ Liability Act 1957. By virtue of Section 2(1) of the 1957 Act, occupiers owe a â€Å"common duty of care to all his visitors† unless that duty is restricted or waived â€Å"by agreement or otherwise†. To this end it is first necessary to identify who is the occupier or occupiers of the Olympic site and thus who would be the possible defendants in a claim by the possible plaintiffs. An occupier is any person or official body or agent with control of the premises in question. It was also held in Wheat v E Lacon & Co. Ltd that it is possible for there to be more than a single occupier of a given pro perty. Thus an employee in sufficient control of the premises can be an occupier together with an employer and an owner. Moreover, the owner need not be present to incur liability for damages to a lawful visitor. Based on the definition of occupier, it would appear that liability is shared jointly and severally between the various ticket vendors, the employees operating the various facilities and the owners of the Olympic site. The extent of the duty of care is described by Section 2(2) of the 1957 Act. The duty is a duty to take reasonable precautions to render the premises â€Å"reasonably safe† for visitors who are lawfully on the premises.7 The duty is generally discharged by posting conspicuous warnings of any pending or possible dangers to the safety of visitors lawfully on the premises.8 A mere warning that an event on the premises is dangerous would be sufficient to discharge the statutory duty of care.9 However, there appears to be no warning signs posted and as a re sult, Peter’s injury is indefensible on the grounds that the various occupiers did not take precautions to warn the possible plaintiffs of the dangers associated with the use of the Olympic site. Some precautions were taken with respect to barricading the ticket queues, but those barricades ultimately collapsed so that the question is whether or not those precautions were sufficient to safeguard against the incident of collapse and the resulting injuries suffered by various visitors queuing up to purchase tickets. Therefore while barricading the ticket queues may have been a sufficient precaution or warning of the dangers of the crowds, the main question is whether or not the warning or precaution was sufficient to discharge the statutory duty of care.10 It would appear that the precautionary measures taken by the police were insufficient to safeguard against the risk of harm attending the large crowds queuing up for the purchase of tickets. Remoteness of Damages Causation wo uld be established by virtue of the fact that the occupiers of the Olympic site had a statutory duty to ensure that the safety of the visitors were provided for or that sufficient warning was provided to permit the visitors to remain safe. As established above, failure to discharge the statutory duty will amount to actionable negligence. However, if the defendants can demonstrate that damages sustained were not a

Similarities and Differences Between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union Essay

Similarities and Differences Between Nazi Germany and Soviet Union Poster Propaganda in the Twentieth Century - Essay Example Both the Soviet Union and Germany used propaganda posters to incite their citizens to support the cause of their nations during World War II. In comparing their posters, it is clear that the use of fear was one way in which to incite an emotional response towards the causes that the posters represented. The Soviet Union defined their enemy as outside of the nation, while the Nazis created internal threats through providing images that placed Jewish people in a context with invented threats to diminish their humanity. Differences are also evident in the styles and methods with which the posters were created. Through an examination of Soviet and Nazi propaganda posters of World War II, the styles of the work and the identification of threats can be contrasted for differences and similarities. Jowett and O’Donnell write that â€Å"there was little appreciation of the specific social and political conditions that had made World War I propaganda so effective† (228). The natu re of propaganda is to influence, but in order to create effective influence, the imagery and text had to connect to the social conscious of the viewers. An example of a poster that did not connect to the social conscious that was considered brilliant for its intentions and artistry, but was declined by the Soviet Union government was that of El Lissitzky’s â€Å"Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge† (1919) (see Figure 1). ... Figure 1 Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge (1919) El Lissitzky (Wikipedia) Socialist realism existed â€Å"with its reliance on simple classical styles and photographically accurate forms in a modern context, its demand of realism, its glorification of socialist ideals and achievements, and its anticipation of a utopian communist society† (Frucht 260). The active campaign to produce posters that reflected the desires of the government in order to align the views of the people was done through the TASS studio which adapted the style of the ROSTA posters which were stenciled. Different from the traditions of the ROSTA posters, however, was the desire to create fine art while creating important cultural messages. Where the ROSTA used iconic images that were generally graphic, The TASS studio employed the use of realist paintings as models for the work (Zegers, Druick and Akinsha np). As shown in the work of Figure 2 The Motherland will Never Forget the Heroic Deeds of its  Son s (1947) Viktor Koretsky (David Winter Bell Gallery) Viktor Koretsky, the warmth of the colors and the power of the imagery evoke the national emotions towards their sons and to a pride based in their sacrifices as they give of themselves to a belief system (David Winter Bell Gallery). The posters provide a reason for the losses that they were experiencing, placing meaning with what they have given (see Figure 2). The works were bold with their use of color and just as bold in their use of fear that asserted the concept of killing Germans with a sense of pride and national presence As exampled in the work Death to the German Murderers, the works revealed a sense

Restaurant Evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Restaurant Evaluation - Essay Example The thesis statement for this paper is to evaluate the pros and cons of Nora’s Cuisine based on, three criteria, which include, variety of the appetizers, pastas, and salads offered by the restaurant, location of the restaurant, and the total cost that must not exceed $20 per person. The first criterion to evaluate Nora’s Cuisine is that food choices should include a variety of appetizers, salads, and pastas.   The cuisine is doing very well in this regard. Some of the main appetizers, which the cuisine offers to the customers, include Gamberoni Fritti, Calamari Fritti, Italian Wings, Mozzarella Sticks, and Bruschetta al Pomodoro. A bad point regarding the cuisine is that it falls short of meal at times. The managers need to take every step to make every appetizer available to the customers whenever the customers come within the mealtimes. The cuisine specializes in making delicious pastas, such as, Melrose pesto, Fettuccine Carbonara, Cheese Ravioli, and Rigatoni Special. Diners can use the facility to take their leftovers with them. Salads are full of calories and are very delicious indeed. The cuisine also specializes in preparing antipasto, fruit salad, and crisp lettuce topped with mozzarella, olives, blue cheese, and tomatoes. With the order of tw o hamburgers or sandwiches, the cuisine provides a full plate of French fries and a soft drink without any charges. That is really a good thing and the customers like it a lot. The second criterion to evaluate Nora’s Cuisine is the location of the cuisine. The cuisine is just 5 kilometers away from my place. People can also go to the cuisine using public transport. A bad point regarding location is the small parking area for the people who have their own vehicles. The third criterion to evaluate Nora’s Cuisine is the price of food. I set the limit of maximum $20 per person. The prices at Nora’s Cuisine fall below the limit. The prices are not high and low income people can also afford to go to Nora’s

Assess security risks to Georgia (Republic of) Essay

Assess security risks to Georgia (Republic of) - Essay Example Georgia was not important to them because it does not serve their national interests. International groups like the League of Nations and Second Socialist International, that are supportive of Georgia’s goal to create a social democracy and are responsible for promoting and preserving peace all over the world, were not strong enough to stop the plans of the Soviet Union to break the independence of Georgia through force (He & Feng, 2012). This essay analyses security risks of Georgia. The politics in Caucasus was not good and harmful to Georgia. The military of Georgia, who were not united, not trained, and have very few resources, were always involved in battles, like border fights and civil wars. These battles showed the problems of Georgia’s national security. And these national security problems were worsened by lack of economic help from other countries, lack of revenues, unskilled public servants, bad communication and transportation, and very hard economic problems (MacFarlane, 2012). Georgia is still in a very difficult situation in terms of security because it has to give information or warnings about security risks without stopping or badly affecting the economy. Creating a strong economy and democracy in a weak or risky country is a main problem for Georgia. While Georgia tries to build democracy, the risk of regional conflict or problem affects all over Georgia and could be made happen by some happenings. This could be one more Russian military attack because of preventing a possible Georgian attack on the occupied South Ossetia and Abkhazia, helping Russian minority groups, giving supplies to Russian military headquarters in Armenia, or fighting terrorism (CSIS, 2006). Russia is being ready to get involved its military in the South Caucasus if fighting occurred in facilities with nuclear weapons from Iran. The reason

I'va attached the file Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

I'va attached the file - Essay Example In Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, the process of democratisation has been studied through the muddled waters the civil society has waded to participate in national socioeconomic development, as shall be seen in the discourse that ensues forthwith. Thesis statement There is a clear and distinct relationship between the presence and vibrancy of the civil society and socioeconomic stability in any state, as can be seen in the ASEAN countries. Many political scientists contend that many have come to falsely believe that socioeconomic growth and stability can be realised through the attainment of strong authoritarian systems, due to the strong state apparatuses that these authoritarian systems possess. Countries such as Singapore and Malaysia are cited to underscore and validate this notion. However, a critical look at the development in the ASEAN countries indicates that authoritarian regimes inherently do not co-occur with socioeconomic development. ... The proximity of South Korea and Taiwan to Malaysia and Singapore could in fact have helped inject democratic elements such as political pluralism in Malaysia and Singapore. Chief among these democratic elements include the accommodation and acknowledgement of the civil society in politics. The very autocratic environment in which political plurality is absent is on the contrary, the very drawback that staves off stable democratic transitions and allows dictators to frustrate the actualisation of reforms and democratisation. Defined as the realm of activities and institutions that exist outside the government's direct control of the government, the civil society has mobilized the society on matters that are directly related to socioeconomic development such as corruption, governance and transparency, in ASEAN countries (Hewison, 137). The standpoint above about the civil society is well exemplified by the manner in which the civil society in Malaysia has concerted its effort to fight politically instigated economic corruption. On 20 March 2013, a group of civil society organisations asked the Royal Commission of Inquiry (RCI) to expedite investigations on a dossier that had exposed Tan Sri A. T. Mahmud, the Sarawak Chief Minister and his family as participants in an unlawful and corrupt land deal. Apart from the fact that the land deal was bound to cost the government its source of revenue; thousands of the indigenous people living on that land were to be displaced. Similarly, beside the call by firebrand civil society Aliran to have full investigations carried out over the matter, frantic calls were also successfully made by Haris Ibrahim and his colleges in the ABU movement, to have

University of Cambridge Essay Example for Free

University of Cambridge Essay Milton started to attend this College at the age of sixteen in 1625. Earlier he had learned at the St Paul’s school. He really appreciated the atmosphere at that school and intellectual level of his friends. In contrast he felt very disappointed with university life, because of the fact that he couldn’t find similar friend as he had in his earlier school. He was an outsider and that’s why he got a nickname from his fellow undergraduates ‘The Lady of Christ’s College† but in reality girls were not allowed to study there. Even though he didn’t have a good relationships with his friends, he felt that the tutors respected him. It was interesting to read about daily life at the university in 17th century. Students had to get up early because at 5 a.m. there was a service in Chapel. At this College the religious life was very important and that’s why parents of John Milton sent him there. Lectures started at 7 o’clock after breakfast and finished at 10.30 a.m. There was a dinner at 11.00 and the second service at 6 p.m. just before the supper. In the mid-seventeenth century the free main subjects were taught at this University: logic, rhetoric and philosophy. In those days all students had to learn the same subjects, there wasn’t any specialization and they didn’t have any choice. Students were also obliged to speak Latin. They didn’t take exams as it is nowadays but they had to make speeches and debates. The slides gave me an imagination about the university buildings and architecture. The most of it was made of stone but there were also some parts made of wood for instance Rat’s Hall which was intended for a students’ rooms. I know that the university had a small library and a chapel. To sum up, thanks to this virtual tour I had an opportunity to compare the university life in mid-seventeenth century to the present one. In my opinion our education and the way of teaching and learning is entirely different from Miltons times.

Birds of a Feather Essay Example for Free

Birds of a Feather Essay â€Å"If birds of a feather flock together, they don’t learn enough† ~Robert Half~ The first thing that comes to mind when reading this quote is a flock of geese. They all stick together. They learn from one another and what they learn they pass on to future generations. While this is how they learn to stay safe, they are â€Å"stuck† doing the same thing every day. After reading the quote a few more times and looking at it from â€Å"outside the box† I realized that the birds represent people. Throughout our lives we see examples of this same behavior. For example, in high school there are many â€Å"flocks† who all dress, talk, and express themselves similarly. Why? Because it makes them feel safe. The problem with it is that they spend so much time doing things just like the rest of their â€Å"flock† that when they graduate they have a hard time adjusting to the real world. They didn’t learn enough about other â€Å"flocks† to be able to function outside of their comfort zone. This quote originates from the idea of the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus (c.460 BC), who stated: `Creatures flock together with their kind, doves with doves, and cranes with cranes and so on. The author, Robert Half was a businessman When I looked up the quote on the internet I found that my findings were confirmed. The quote means you are only as smart as the people you surround yourself with. If you want to learn more and do more you have to be willing to open yourself up to exploring new things and talking to people outside of your comfort zone. Only then can you really learn.

Analysis Of A Whole Tourism System Tourism Essay

Analysis Of A Whole Tourism System Tourism Essay Introduction Nowadays, the world tourism industry is growing very fast. Tourists are now visiting more remote areas and amazing places. Tourism in presents world is no more a basic sightseeing. The tourism systems are the arrangement of people, places and organizations in particular roles and it is named as a geographical extremities. Many of the tourism systems are modeled as arrangements of five common elements which are interactive to environments (Leiper, 1990). So, this paper would like to present the Whole Tourism System (WTS) in a peaceful destination like Auckland city in New Zealand as it is famous about Eco-tourism Adventured-tourism and wonderful nature. Almost all of foreign tourists visit the Auckland city as a first city when they come to New Zealand. In This paper will analysis Bangkok and Auckland and case study from my experience when I was an international student and stay there for 10 months. I took a Thai airway (TG) direct flight from Bangkok to Auckland. I paid for booking the round trip air ticket around 40,000 Bath. Normally, if you stay for holiday the air fares much cheaper. Maybe the price between 25,000 35,000 Bath. It depends on which airline you choose. During I studied in Auckland, my cousin come to travel in Auckland. At that time, He arrived by Thai airways direct flight but his air ticket was cheaper than my ticket because he plan to stay in Auckland for 2weeks. So, I taught him about Transit Route (TR) and also we went to Waiheke Island by Ferries boat to get into. It not far from Auckland city. However, we collected the information from Tourist Information centre at the Aucklands Sky Tower. So, Auckland city is quite easy for travel without agency because New Zealand concern about this and also the local peo ple speak English language. WHOLE TOURISM SYSTEM (WTS) Whole tourism system will help to understand about the tourism WTS is huge because every itinerary route followed by one or more tourists it is an open system its models are recognize that facts and its implementation the closed system is the one does not interact with the environment (Leiper, 2004). In other word, many people are seeing the tourism as an industry rather than understanding the tourism as a system which includes the elements which are interrelated parts working together to complete general purposes. This is called tourism system (Mill and Morrison, 2002). The whole systems will tells about all tourism industry business hotels, resorts airlines other business and organizations affected by the tourism. And it provides the better understanding to the people who are working the hotels and resorts to not basically provide service to customers but to understand why they are coming to the hotels (Mill and Morrison, 2002). And Leiper said that the system he thought that there should be a model of whole tourism system (WTS) to present a way of bearing in mind the complete scope of tourism. Also the whole tourism systems focus and develops tourism market for meets the requirement of a tourist. So the propose of this paper will describe and analysis a whole tourism system. Tourists Tourism has become a popular in a global leisure activity. According to Leiper said that the tourists are the people who travel away from the home to another place for a short-term period of at least one night, to the extent that their behaviour involves a search for leisure experiences from interactions with features or characteristics of places they choose to visit. (Leiper, 2004) And also Leiper said At least one tourist is elementary. Without tourists there can be tourism (Leiper, 2004). In this case, from the information of Tourism New Zealand show that the visitors who come to the New Zealand spend 6.2 billion us dollars by international visitor in the year to Dec 2009. So, New Zealand tourism industry from the last couple of years has emerged as a major factor in the growth of New Zealand economy with substantial foreign exchange earnings. As tourism constitutes various other related sectors including hotels, resorts, and other industries it has a significant contribution to the overall revenue. However, Tourism New Zealand show the table about the most number of tourists will come to see the Auckland city which is once the biggest city of New Zealand before they visit another place in New Zealand. In this case, Bangkok is traveller generating region (TGR) and Tourism New Zealand said the number of Thai people come to travel in New Zealand at least 3,500 visitors, followed by March, May and October. There were 19,296 visitor arrivals from this market in the year ended November 2009. Except the number of tourists from Thailand airport comes to visit Auckland city who is not Thai people. So, Bangkok able to be a first of traveller generating region or second traveller generating region as well. Traveller-generating region (TGR): Bangkok, Thailand Traveller-generating region (TGR) is places where a tourists trip begins and normally ends (Leiper, 2004). The generating regions are the place for the essential markets of the tourist business and it is the basis of tourist industry (Bhatta, 2002). Traveller-generating region (TGR) is the origin of tourist or a place that inspire the desire to travel (Leiper, 2004). However, Auckland city concerned about Traveller-generating region (TGR) is important. That can show from the number of travel fair which New Zealand come to promoted themself. Because New Zealand attracts a steady number of visitors from the South East Asian markets of India, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. The markets have shown resilience during the global economic downturn, proving their value for New Zealand tourism. Although these markets are smaller in visitor numbers, awareness of an interested in New Zealand holidays is strong. These markets also offer good opportunities to boost visitor numbers to New Zealand in autumn, which is the peak time for travel from Thailand. And visitor arrivals from Thailand decreased by 3.4 per cent in the year ended June 2008 from one year prior followed by a slight increase of 1.3 per cent in the year ended 2009. So Bangkok not only Tourist destination region (TDR) for every traveller it can be come to a Traveller-generating region (TGR) for the people who live or come to travel in Bangkok and the tourists who comes to visit can plan to next travel to go to Auckland city before go back home or other destinations anyway. Transits Route (TR): Bangkok to Auckland Leiper said that Transits Route (TR) is places that tourist passing through along the way in order to get to their tourist destination regions (Leiper, 2004). So, there are many international flights to New Zealand and from there are several ways to reach the main destination for Auckland city. Unfortunately, availability of airline seats is a concern for New Zealand in South East Asia, particularly for India, which is not currently served by direct flights to New Zealand. Tourism New Zealands Regional Manager for South East Asia is based in Mumbai, but we also have offices in Bangkok and Singapore. Anyway, there are many direct international flights from Bangkok to Auckland. Thai Airways now flies four 777-300 non-stop services per week between Bangkok and Auckland. The airline is looking at increasing services between the two cities in the near future. In Auckland city, you can rent the car or take a punctually bus (Stagecoach Auckland) when tourist want to go travel in the city. However, the information of Tourism New Zealand showed that 50% of visitor from Thailand are coming with a group. So, it much easier to go travel in every main tourist attraction. Tourist destination region (TDRs): Auckland, New Zealand Tourist destination region (TDR) are places where a tourists main visiting activities occurs (Leiper, 2004) and Tourist destination region (TDR) can be defined as places where travels choose to stay awhile for leisure experiences(Leiper, 2004). Followed by Leiper said, New Zealand is one of the well-known destinations of the World Tourism map with peaceful city. Auckland city is one of peaceful city in New Zealand. Population of Auckland city without traveller are around 1.3millions. Local people said Auckland city as a city of sail or queen city because Auckland city is a biggest and grow up fastest in New Zealand. Nowadays, Auckland is a centre of business and industry. Not only this, Auckland city is a city with natural resources and green the atmosphere so Auckland city becomes popular for international student and traveler more. Moreover, there are plenty of shopping areas, lot of souvenir and the tourist attraction. Form my advised which are push factor of Auckland city; Aucklands Sky Tower is highlight of Auckland city. There are casino, restaurants, high jump activity and the best view point inside the tower. Mount Eden is old volcano mountain area and the highest point of Auckland city. Auckland Zoo is fantastic place to see Pacific Oceans animal. Traveler also can found Kiwi bird as the symbolic of New Zealand. Auckland Museum is the one of biggest museum in New Zealand. National Maritime Museum is the museum which collects the history of ocean 1,000 years before. Auckland Art Gallery Toi O Tamaki is collecting every kind of arts of New Zealand including Maori arts too. Victoria Park Market as a creative market for teenager and traveler. One Tree Hill (Maungakiekie) is a volcanic cone which dominates the skyline in the southern inner suburbs. Also it is history place of negotiation about Maori people and European people. Ericsson Stadium is a rugby stadium. It is a famous place of local people because rugby is the most famous sport in New Zealand. Auckland Harbour Bridge is also the highlight and one of Auckland citys symbolic. However, Maori Culture and Maori Art easily found. Also Auckland is the best place for sheep products it is pretty cheap and the tourists can find different verities of sheep product and best quality too. Tourist visit Auckland in early morning, afternoon, or evening and also a special part of Auckland city is a night time. Especially sky tower changes colour every month. So, it is very beautiful to visit Auckland city as a Tourist destination region (TDR). Tourism industries Normally, tourists are booking everything from travel agency but some just booking only air ticket so Tourism industries quite important for tourist. Leiper said that Tourism industries are an organizational element which is collections of managed organizations in the business of tourism that work together to some degree in marketing tourism and providing services, goods and facilities and Tourism industries represent organizations that engage or influent the tourists activities (Leiper, 2004). The tourists arriving in Auckland were welcomed by local people. And there are various tourism industries to accommodate tourists visiting to Auckland. Kiwiexperience.com one of many choice about tourism information service which is reasonable price and many of tourist from this site are around 18-35 year old. Tourismnewzealand.com is recognized by ministry of government for give every information to traveller. However, Auckland city has a many information centre service and also there are off icer who wearing a red suit will help you to give information for traveller in every main street. So it quite helpful for traveller without travel plans. ENVIRONMENTS AFFECTING WHOLE TOURISM SYSTEM (WTS) Environments nearby a tourism destination interrelate with tourism actions happening in the destination. Following are some environments affecting WTS in Auckland. Physical environment The Atmosphere in the city the architecture of the buildings reflects European style and elegance. Some of architectural is Maori style. It is the one of many major tourist attractions in Auckland. And also Auckland city is a green city and safe. So, this kind of physical environment is the first reason for the city to be a Tourist destination region (TDR). Climate change At the present, Auckland is facing some world environmental problems call climate change or global warming. So some time Auckland meets some bad effect of this problem too. World economy crisis World economy crisis effects to every tourist from worldwide. Tourist least spent their money and also they slow down for many holiday plan. So, just like Leiper said no tourist no tourism. WHOLE TOURISM SYSTEM (WTS) AFFECTING ENVIRONMENTS The environments of anything are the nearby circumstance that may have an effect on it in any way and that might be affected by it (Leiper, 2004). Physical impacts Mainly in Auckland mostly at weekend it is seen as physical impacts caused by the growing number of tourists coming from everywhere and the domestic tourists are visit in the weekend time. So it a lot of traveller in every beaches or tourist attractions. It is main worst part and the pollution. So, water pollutions and urban waste are increased because of activities done by tourists. Economic impacts Tourism has major effects on the economies of destination areas (Mathieson and Wall, 1982). So, A number of factors are responsible for the rapid growth and development of the tourism industry in New Zealand. These include the strong economic growth increase in income, breakdown of political barriers, easing of travel restrictions, liberalization of air transport, and focused marketing campaigns. Strong economic growth in New Zealand is attributed to a focus on market reforms, export oriented industries, stable currencies, diversification of the economy, and massive injection of foreign capital. Billions of Us dollars are being poured into the tourism infrastructure to accommodate a rapidly increasing Indian tourism industry. This has intensified trade, investment, and travel within the region and with the rest of the world. Tourism also helps to generate additional job placements for its people (Mathieson and Wall, 1982). Tourists are spending money in Auckland as a Tourist destinat ion region (TDR) and also give involvement in rising per person wages in the places and also improve various businesses for other communities. CONCLUSION This report showed how the model of Whole Tourism System (WTS) is applied in Auckland city. There are five elements in whole tourism systems they are Travellers Generating Regions (TGR), the Transit Route (TR) and the Tourist Destination Region (TDR) Tourism Industries and Tourist. Knowledge of how Leipers Basic Whole Tourist System aids in the development of a destination such as Auckland city. Throughout my study in this area I have looked at this whole system will helps the tourism planners the planners need to understand this system because this paper gives the brief understanding about each and every element in this system and how it will after the other system as well. All the system are interrelated to other systems so each and every element should work properly as if one fails to function properly wit will affect the whole tourism system. According from my point of view after studying about the whole tourism system each and every element is important to be a success full trip if one of the elements is missing from the Whole tourism system (WTS) there is no tour and then there is no tourism.

Problems With Looking ?un Neat? On The Playing Field :: essays research papers

Problems with looking â€Å"un neat† on the playing field   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a sophomore on the Cocoa High’s Varsity girl soccer team, I can truly say that our appearance on the field looks revolting as a whole. It simply ruins our reputation, even before we compete. Everyone, even our own school assumed that we have little or no chance winning the game. We get no support at all. That really upset my team and me. Joking around about out school record can go but too far. Yes it’s true that we don’t have a strong girl soccer record. But we are willing to change that. And we are showing a lot of progress as years goes by. But you got to remember this group of girls works their butts off to even show up for game. You have to give us a lot of credit just for attempting. We sacrifice our time and strength to play these games. We work awfully hard at every single game. Just because we don’t go home winning the game, doesn’t mean we are losers. It just means, we have a lot of work to progress our soccer abilit y. To start with, without us group of girls, Cocoa High wouldn’t even have a girl soccer program. And if the school doesn’t have it, it also means the boy soccer team wouldn’t exist either.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I sit on the stands watching the Junior Varsity play against other school’s Junior Varsity team, the first thing I notice, is how we present ourselves. At the most, other school’s has greater a mount of players, at least twice as more then us. We barely made it to where we can start the game. With no substitution, its just mean, â€Å"don’t get hurt† during the game. And when you’re playing aggressively, like you’re suppose to, you will have greater chance of getting injured. Which cause the Cocoa Tiger to become weaker then it already is. I know it’s not fair that we have to suffer, which most girls drop out of the team. And I know a lot of other girls would like it too, but they don’t want other school’s to start talking some more about us. Also, lots of us like the sport, and want to continue competing. Problems With Looking ?un Neat? On The Playing Field :: essays research papers Problems with looking â€Å"un neat† on the playing field   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a sophomore on the Cocoa High’s Varsity girl soccer team, I can truly say that our appearance on the field looks revolting as a whole. It simply ruins our reputation, even before we compete. Everyone, even our own school assumed that we have little or no chance winning the game. We get no support at all. That really upset my team and me. Joking around about out school record can go but too far. Yes it’s true that we don’t have a strong girl soccer record. But we are willing to change that. And we are showing a lot of progress as years goes by. But you got to remember this group of girls works their butts off to even show up for game. You have to give us a lot of credit just for attempting. We sacrifice our time and strength to play these games. We work awfully hard at every single game. Just because we don’t go home winning the game, doesn’t mean we are losers. It just means, we have a lot of work to progress our soccer abilit y. To start with, without us group of girls, Cocoa High wouldn’t even have a girl soccer program. And if the school doesn’t have it, it also means the boy soccer team wouldn’t exist either.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I sit on the stands watching the Junior Varsity play against other school’s Junior Varsity team, the first thing I notice, is how we present ourselves. At the most, other school’s has greater a mount of players, at least twice as more then us. We barely made it to where we can start the game. With no substitution, its just mean, â€Å"don’t get hurt† during the game. And when you’re playing aggressively, like you’re suppose to, you will have greater chance of getting injured. Which cause the Cocoa Tiger to become weaker then it already is. I know it’s not fair that we have to suffer, which most girls drop out of the team. And I know a lot of other girls would like it too, but they don’t want other school’s to start talking some more about us. Also, lots of us like the sport, and want to continue competing.

The House of Bernarda Alba and A Dolls House Essay -- Feminism

Federico Garcia Lorca's â€Å"The House of Bernarda Alba† and Henrik Ibsen's â€Å"A Doll's House† both protest against the confinement of women of their days. Although the Houses are set differently in Spain of 20th century and Norway of 19th century respectively, both the plays relate in illuminating their respective female protagonists, Adela and Nora, as they eventually develop a sense of individuality and self-expression, emerging as free individuals from repression. The authors’ attempts to do so allow the audience to gain an insight into the social norms that each protagonist was pitted against. This heightens the tension as the action develops. Both Adela and Nora are inherently individualistic, and their innate nature is shown especially when they covertly display defiance in occasions of high social expectations. Despite Bernarda’s declaration of a long period of mourning and her orders to stay within the walls of her house and to wear only black, Adela cheerfully wears a colourful dress of zealous green and goes out of the house, disobeying Bernarda, â€Å"to look for what is [hers], what belongs to [her]† – Pepe el Romano. In ‘A Doll’s House’, while Mrs Linde asserts that â€Å"a wife can’t borrow without her husband’s permission† , Nora, whom her husband Torvald calls â€Å"[his] independent little creature,† leaks out her insubordinate action of borrowing. She even dares to forge her father’s signature, but more importantly, she individually decides for herself why she has to forge – to save â€Å"her husband’s life† on her own. The pressure to comply with the traditional societal conventions induces the central characters of both the plays to masquerade. Appearing as an innocent â€Å"poor little thing† to Magdalena, Adela confidently thinks of... ...e whole town against me, branding me with their fiery fingers, persecuted by people who claim to be decent, and right in front of them I will put on a crown of thorns, like a mistress of a married man!† The free flow of words from Nora’s and Adela’s hearts triggers the audience to think about the power of transformation. Despite their initial confinement and dishonesty, both Nora and Adela are courageous and passionate, possessing the strength to pursue freedom; they are risk-takers who challenge circumstances notwithstanding the uncertainties of future. Their choices of self-expression and freedom – through abandonment and death respectively – and the characters themselves representationally express the potential energy of women and endlessly protest for independence of women of every era and culture. Works Cited The House of Bernarda Alba A Doll's House

Smallville and its popularity :: essays research papers fc

Smallville vs. other Superman series   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Man, throughout the ages, has looked to the stars with great amusement and curiosity. Wondrous stories are born of these magical, glimmering specs in the sky. Stories of tragedy, magic and heroism. These stories entertain and more, they give us hope. A tale of the stars like no other is the one of Superman, protector of planet Earth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As said by the Superman stories, Clark Kent was discovered by Martha and Jonathan Kent shortly after a meteor shower hit the town of Smallville. Martha insisted on keeping the young boy and taking him into their family. Clark grew up on a farm helping out with chores and being loved by his human mother and father. The only difference with Clark’s upbringing was that in the comics, he was just a baby when discovered by the Kents. In â€Å"Smallville† he was a boy about 6 years of age when he was found.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This very scene I speak of has been played over and over in television besides the WB hit, â€Å"Smallville† (Kal-El). For example:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"In the 1990's cartoon Pinky and the Brain, The Brain tracks down Superman's rocket ship and tries to raise Clark himself, with Pinky. Fortunately, the super baby turns out to be too much for the Brain, as changing diapers requires an oxygen suit, and the tiny kid of steel uses his heat vision to blast the lab rat. Baby Clark makes his way back to the field where he landed and where the Kents find him.† (Kal-El)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The most famous version of this scene is shown in the Superman Movie with Glenn Ford playing Jonathan Kent and Phyllis Thaxter playing Martha Kent (Smallville). In this version the Kents find Clark and he displays his powers right away instead of demonstrating them over his teenage years like in the â€Å"Smallville† series.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was so smart for someone to answer everyone’s questions as to how Clark grew up by giving them the front row seat to Clark’s teenage years. Especially since in any other version of Superman all we knew of was when he was discovered and when he was already â€Å"Superman†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Martha and Jonathan Kent have changed in the stories as well. All of the Superman stories have the Kents as an elderly couple in their sixties (Superboy). The 1978 movie version shows the Kents older and so does the Lois and Clark TV series.

Cuneiform And Hieroglyphics Essay

The invention of writing was an important part of the development of Sumer and Egypt. There are many similarities and differences to the writings of each of these civilizations. The Sumerians developed a writing called cuneiform. Cuneiform is the oldest written language in existence. Each picture represents a living or nonliving thing. Cuneiform was written on clay tablets with a wedge-shaped instrument called a stylus. Henry Creswicke Rawlinson was the first person to decipher the meanings of cuneiform. He did so in 1846. Cuneiform eventually spread throughout the region and was adopted by many other early civilizations. The Egyptians developed a writing that they named hieroglyphics. The word hieroglyphic means ?sacred inscriptions? because they were often written on the walls of temples. Hieroglyphics were created about 5000 years ago. There are not any vowels, only consonants. There is also no punctuation. In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was discovered. The Rosetta Stone was the secret to discovering the meanings of hieroglyphics. On the Rosetta Stone there were three sections of print, each saying the same thing but in different languages. At the top, the paragraph was written in hieroglyphics. Second, it was written in Demotic. Lastly the paragraph was written in Ancient Greek. By reading the ancient Greek word and names, the other paragraphs could be deciphered. Twenty-three years after it?s discovery, Jean-FranVois Champollion figured out what the hieroglyphics meant. Hieroglyphics are pictures that represent a letter. In both civilizations, mostly only scribes knew how to read and write. Being a scribe was a very honorable profession. People who were to become scribes went to school for many years starting at a young age. The profession of being a scribe was passed down through families; if a boy?s father was a scribe, he would become one also. Because children needed to be taught to read and write when they were to  become scribes, schools were created. Eventually, these schools became more than centers of just learning the art of reading and writing, but they also became centers of learning of botany, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. People becoming more literate and more knowledgeable helped greatly in the development of the civilizations. Both writings, cuneiform and hieroglyphics, were invented to improve the record keeping of the civilization. By having a written language, Egypt and Sumer could kept records, draw up contracts and official documents, record laws and legal judgments, and record sales. As time went on, being able to write also enabled people to write down formulas, procedures, legends, prayers, and hymns. Even though there were many differences between cuneiform and hieroglyphics, there were many similarities. These similarities caused writing to be important in the growth of Sumer and Egypt.

Management Functions

Introduction Management can be defined as a creative problem solving which is accomplished through four basic functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling. All functions are vitally important as failure to accomplish one function may lead to failure of the overall project. Actually, in accounting firm management functions are necessary to develop effective allocation of resources and to achieve the desired objectives and missions. Planning is defined as the process of setting missions and objectives which are of top priority for accounting firm. Organizing is defined as coordinating and controlling of tasks and information within firm or company. Leading is defined as influencing employee by means of motivation, leadership and discipline. Controlling is defined as establishing and measuring standards of performance based on company’s missions and objectives. (Higgins 1998) Management Functions Planning function is considered fundamental from others are being developed. Planning is important for accounting firm as today’s’ decisions will directly affect the future of the firm. For example, in accounting firm financial manager is ready to go to organizing function only after goals and objectives are set. Planning affects all levels of management in accounting firm. Nevertheless, planning characteristics are varying from level to level. Planning suggests setting vision, missions, goals and objectives. Vision is defined as non-specific motivational guidance. Mission answers the question why business exists. In accounting firm, mission answers the question about the necessity of bookkeeping. For example, one possible mission of accounting firm is to create net income balance for particular project or company. Objectives define market standing, productivity, financial resources, etc. Finally, goals are defined as â€Å"specific statements of anticipated results that further define the organization's objectives†. (Erven 1999) Organizing function ensures establishment of firm’s internal organizational structure. In accounting firm this function focuses on controlling accounting and financial tasks and coordinating the flow of financial information within the firm. Organizing suggests also labor division, authority delegation, departmentation, span of control, and coordination. As far as accounting firm has more than two employees, it has to take these decisions into account. Division of labor suggests that employees are divided to perform particular tasks. Delegation of authority is, primarily, distribution of power within firm. In accounting firm delegation of authority can be used to make financial manager free to pay attention to high priority activities. (Woody 1998) Leading function is finding effective ways to guide employees’ work and to motivate them to perform better. Usually, this function is accomplished through effective interpersonal motivation, group dynamics, discipline and leadership. Actually, in accounting firm I am working in leading aims at channeling the behavior of employees to accomplish set goals and objectives. Nevertheless, the role of leader is vital as he should help people to stay motivated. Moreover, leading function is responsible for leading the flow of project accomplishing. Leading play important role in accounting as this process should be controlled to avoid calculating mistakes and not to waste time for checking in future. (Erven 1999) Controlling function is measuring performance and taking prevention measures if necessary. The control process is, actually, a cycle process. In accounting firm, controlling suggests identification of computation errors and problems before the project is returned to the customer. Controlling is related with all other management function as it is built on planning, organizing and leading. Usually, effective control systems are characterized by flexibility, accuracy, timeliness, cost effectiveness, and ability to control all business levels. Also controlling is my firm is used to revealing inaccurate information or lack of understanding the necessity of information. (Erven 1999) References Higgins, James. (1994). The Management Challenge. USA: Macmillan. Woody, Alexander. (1998). Staffing and Organizing the Management Accounting Function at Large Financial Institutions. Retrieved February 25, 2008, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3682/is_199801/ai_n8760331 ; ; ; ; ; Management functions Management can be defined as the procedure of getting things done by means of and through human resource personnel by directing and inspiring their hard work towards achieving universal goals. Human resource in any organization is the most important asset since without them the management cannot attain the achieved goals since they are the one coordinating the activities of any particular organization. Secretary is part of the human resource in any organization and in fact he/she has a bigger role to play in achieving the organization’s goals and objectives. We can therefore say that the secretary just like the manager of any organization plays the role of being an enabler in that he/she must ensure that things are in order for the boss or other employees for them to carry out effectively without many difficulties. Discussion Functions of management are those of planning, organizing, leading and controlling and such all four functions requires that the secretary should have skills and knowledge on how to carry out such management functions in an organization in this case middle school organization. Planning is considered to be the primary function of management and actually encompasses establishing what should be carried out in future. Planning entails setting of objectives, processes, regulations and other tasks required for attainment of organization’s mission statement. Usually the best strategies are selected from various identified strategies and therefore will require forecasting the future and how best to attain the results that will ensure the success of the organization. As a secretary therefore skills of planning function must be utilized for example gathering and sorting information and ensuring how such information should be disseminated to other employees as well as planning what the senior managers will be required to do and notifying them on any changes. Such skills on how to plan effectively will be of great importance to the secretary in order to avoid conflicts and thus attainment of goals. (Maundy, 2001) The other function of management is that of organizing which involves arranging and allocating tasks in the workplace in order to attain the set organization’s objectives. In essence, organization function is responsible for how tasks will be divided and achieved efficiently and effectively. Usually the supervisors of all organizations are responsible for identifying tasks and subdividing work groups in to separate sections in an organization. However, the secretary plays a major role too since she has the responsibility of tasks specifications and assigning them to various employees as directed by the senior mangers. Therefore as the secretary for middle school the responsibility under this function will be that of ensuring that all the tasks to be done are clearly defined and divided to all responsible employees on time and such tasks are assigned to the most competent and qualified employees in the middle school. The other function of management is that of leading which involves directing human resource of an organization in the right path in order to achieve the set goals efficiently and effectively. Traditionally this function involves directing, educating and overseeing the employees within an organization. The secretary too plays this role in modern world by having the responsibility of guiding and coaching other labor force to achieve the set goals; for example in middle school as a secretary it will be of great importance to lead by example that is achieving the set goals and targets on time and guiding the rest of employees in the school to carry out their tasks without much difficulty. (Rampton, 2003) The other function is that of controlling which entails ensuring that the real performance achieved is matched with the intended results and also ensuring that corrective measures are undertaken if there are deviations from the set goals. This function goes hand in hand with planning such that if poor planning was done then the set goals will not be achieved and therefore will necessitate controlling function to efficiently redesign the plan in order to achieve congruent goals. As a secretary of middle school, this function will involve ensuring that any tasks allocated to individuals are finished in time and the target results are achieved from such tasks. Conclusion We can therefore conclude that, management functions apply in every organization and middle school level are not exceptional in order to attain desired goals. The secretaries therefore in such middle schools should be equipped with skills that will ensure that the above functions are coordinated well and with ease thus accomplishing the set goals efficiently and effectively. The management functions are considered to be continuous processes such that the effective accomplishment of one function will lead to attaining other functions smoothly within an organization. It is therefore necessary for all organizations to continuously provide training programs in order to sharpen the skills of there employees so that they can effectively perform the management functions with less difficulties. (Hilltop, 1994) Reference Hilltop J (1994): European Human Resource Management in Transition. New York, Prentice Hall, pp 23-76 Maundy L (2001): An Introduction to Human to Human Resource Management- Theory and Practice. Macmillan, Palgrave pp 12-45 Rampton L (2003): Human Resource Management. New York,   Ã‚  Melbourne press, pp 23-37   

Ming Dynasty Trade

Andrew Paul Stokes June 5, 2011 Ming Dynasty Economy It’s growth and it’s decline. By Andrew Paul Stokes Beijing Union University 1|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes June 5, 2011 Ming Dynasty Economy The Ming Dynasty The economy of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) of China was the largest in the world at the time. It is regarded as one of China's three golden ages (the other two being the Han and Tang dynasties), the Ming is also the dynasty where the first sprouts of Chinese capitalism can be seen.The economic growth so evident under the Ming Dynasty continued under the Qing Dynasty, up until the time of the Opium War in the 1840s. During this time, China’s domestic economy was a dynamic, commercialising economy, and in some ways, even an industrialising economy. The Ming Dynasty, â€Å"one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history† 1, was the last native imperial dynasty in Chinese history, sandwiched between the two dynasties of foreign origin, Yuan and Qing. The Ming stand as the last attempt to hold Chinese government in native hands and the last dynasty run by ethnic Hans.As China was humiliated and oppressed by the rule of the Mongols, the Ming Dynasty rose up out of a peasant rebellion led by Zhu Yuanzhang to preside over the greatest economic and social revolution in China before the modern period. Trade was allowed between China and nations in the west, cash crops were more frequently grown, specialised industries were founded, and the economic growth caused by the privatisation of state industries resulted in a prosperous period that exceeded that of the earlier Song Dynasty.At the end of the Ming Dynasty, shortly before the Manchus overthrew the Ming and established the Qing Dynasty, China’s economy was a period of expansion. New markets were being founded, and merchants were extending their businesses across provincial lines and even into the South China Sea. Establishment of the Ming un der the Hongwu Emperor It had become very apparent that the Yuan Dynasty’s ability to govern, to maintain order in society, to administer principal and local government, and to collect taxes – was eroding well before the middle of the fourteenth century. Agriculture and the economy were in a shambles and rebellion broke out among the hundreds of Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather; Fairbank, John King; Craig, Albert M. (1960) A History of East Asian Civilisation, Vol 1. East Asia: The Great Tradition, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 2 Mote, Frederick W. (1988) The Rise of the Ming Dynasty 1330 – 1367 in Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K. (eds. ) The Cambridge History of China, Vol 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368 – 1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press, p. 11 1 2|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes thousands of peasants called upon to work on repairing the dykes of the Yellow River.In the 1350s, several rebel leaders, almost all of whom came from the merchant or lower classes, seiz ed cities and set themselves up as kings or even, with just a small amount of territory, proclaimed themselves to be Emperor. The Yuan Emperor no longer seemed to be in control of the situation, and indeed the country, it had been carved up into pieces by rebel warlords. The Ming Dynasty was an age of breakdown in which throughout most of the country the conduct of daily life depended on and ended up on direct recourse to violence.It provides a classic example of the gradual militarisation of Chinese society and, because of that, the struggle among potent rivals to succeed the Mongol (Yuan) regime by imposing, through military force, a successor regime that could claim the Mandate of Heaven. 3 Zhu Yuanzhang, who would later become the founder of the Ming Dynasty, was a peasant. He was the only person from such poor and humble origins ever to found a ruling Chinese dynasty. It is said that a scholar told him he would succeed if he followed three simple rules: a. build strong city wal ls; b. ) gather as much grain in storage as possible; c. ) be slow to assume titles. Zhu followed these rules assiduously. With his army, Zhu slowly conquered the territories of all the warlords whilst carefully watching the government’s armies. By 1368, he has conquered all of southern China; this is the date at which the Ming Dynasty officially begins. He had control of all of China by 1369. June 5, 2011 Ming Emperor Hongwu (1368 – 1398) Emperor Hongwu made an immediate effort to rebuild state infrastructure.He built a long wall around Nanjing, which then became the official capital of the Ming empire (the Yuan had their capital located in Beijing), as well as new palaces and government halls. 4 He enacted a series of policies designed to favour agriculture at the expense of other industries. Aid was given by the state to farmers, also providing them with land and agricultural equipment, as well as a full revision of the ibid. â€Å"Mandate of Heaven† is a tra ditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers.It is similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimise rule from divine approval; however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of Heaven is predicated on the conduct of the ruler in question. The Mandate of Heaven postulates that heaven (Tian) would bless the authority of a just ruler, as defined by the Five Confucian Relationships, but would be displeased with a despotic ruler and would withdraw its mandate, leading to the overthrow of that ruler. The Mandate of Heaven would then transfer to those who would rule best.The mere fact of a leader having been overthrown is itself indication that he has lost the Mandate of Heaven. 4 Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; (1999) The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press. pp. 190-1. 3 3|P a ge taxation system. 5 The Ming government abolished the mandatory forced labour by peasants that was used in early dynasties and replaced it with wage labour. A new class of wage labourers sprung up where none had existed before. In Jingde alone, it was reported that there were no less than 300 pottery factories, all operated by wage labourers. According to historian Timothy Brook, the Hongwu Emperor attempted to immobilise society by creating rigid, state-regulated boundaries between villages and larger towns, discouraging trade and travel in society not permitted by the government. 7 He also forcibly moved thousands of wealthy families from the southeast and resettled them around Nanjing, forbidding them to move once they were settled. 8 , In order to better administer the state, the emperor ordered surveys and censuses to be taken and the data gathered in government registers and records. This enabled the central government to regulate taxation.In addition, he made all occupations hereditary in order to further prevent social mobility; he understood, as a former peasant himself, the danger of social mobility. All members of Chinese society were grouped into three large hereditary classes: peasants, craftspeople, and soldiers. To keep track of merchants’ activities, he forced them to register all their goods once a month. 9 It seems his main goals were to attempt to curb the influence of the merchants and landlords, but it turned out that several of his policies would eventually encourage them to amass more wealth.Hongwu’s system of massive relocation was seen as being too oppressive and encouraged people’s desire to escape the harsh taxes that were imposed on the wealthy by becoming itinerant retailers, peddlers, and migrant workers finding tenant landowners who would rent them space to farm and labour upon. 10 By the middle of the Ming era, subsequent emperors had abandoned Hongwu’s unpopular relocation system and instead entrusted local officials to document the numbers of migrant workers and their earnings in order to bring in mor e revenue. 1 Hongwu believed that agriculture was the core basis of the economy, Hongwu favoured that industry over all else, including that of merchants. However, after his death, most of his policies were reversed by his successors. By the late Ming, the state ended up losing power to the very merchants which Hongwu had wanted to restrict. Andrew Paul Stokes June 5, 2011 5 Mote, Frederick W. (1988), â€Å"Introduction†, in Twitchett, Denis; Mote, Frederick W. (eds. ), The Cambridge History of China, Vol 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368 – 1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press, p. 6 Li, Bo; Zheng, Yin. (2001) 5000 years of Chinese history. Inner Mongolian People's Publishing House. pp. 994-7 7 Brook, Timothy. (1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 19 8 ibid. pp. 28-29 9 ibid. pp. 65-67 10 ibid. pp. 27-28 11 ibid. p. 97 4|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes The Agricultural Revolution. June 5, 2011 Through s everal of China’s dynastic periods, the economy, like most pre-modern economies was agriculturally based with all other sectors either servicing it or drawing materials from it.During the Song dynasty the Chinese developed the world's most productive agricultural system. Mongol domination and the Ming dynasty's rise to power left much of China devastated and parts uninhabited. 12 The Hongwu Emperor had as one of his central tasks the rebuilding of the Chinese economy which had been devastated by the excesses of the Mongol rulers. Between 1370 and 1398, China experienced a revolution in agriculture unparalleled in history. Hongwu revived the agricultural sector to create self-sufficient communities that would not need to rely on commerce, which he assumed would only remain in urban areas. 3 The surplus created from this revival encouraged farmers to make profits by selling their goods in regional urban markets. 14 Alongside other crops, rice was grown on a large scale with the introduction of Champa Rice from Southeast Asia. Population growth and the decrease in fertile land made it necessary that farmers produce cash crops to earn a living, and as the countryside and urban areas became more connected through commerce, households in rural areas began taking on traditionally urban specialisations, such as the production of silk and cotton, as well as producing fabric dyes and growing sugar cane. 5 The Cambridge History of China states about the Ming that: â€Å"The commercialisation of Ming society within the context of expanding communications may be regarded as a distinguishing aspect of the history of this dynasty. In the matter of commodity production and circulation, the Ming marked a turning point in Chinese history, both in the scale at which goods were being Graham, James. (Unknown Date). â€Å"Quantitative Growth, Qualitative Standstill: China's Economic Situation 1368-1800†. From HistoryOrb. com website. http://www. historyorb. com/asia/ china_economy. shtml (accessed 03/06/2011). 13 Brook, Timothy. 1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 69 14 ibid. pp. 65-66 15 ibid. pp. 113-117 12 5|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes produced for the market, and in the nature of the economic relations that governed commercial exchange. † 16 June 5, 2011 The Yongle Emperor, the Second Founding†¦ Hongwu’s successor and grandson assumed the throne as the Jianwen Emperor (1398–1402) after the death of Hongwu in 1398. After a short period of civil war, he was overthrown by his uncle, Zhu Di, who assumed the throne under the title the Yongle Emperor.The reign of the Yongle Emperor is considered by many to be ‘a second founding’ of the Ming Dynasty since he had reversed many of his father’s policies. 17 Also, during his reign, China had recovered many of the territories lost during earlier dynasties, as well as those lost durin g the much earlier Five Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms era (907–960AD). One year after assuming the throne, he announced that the new capital and power base will be moved to back to Beijing and a new palatial complex to be built, and the current capital, Nanjing, was to be demoted to a secondary capital.Construction began on what is now known as The Forbidden City in 1407. Construction of the new city took place between 1406 to 1420, employing hundreds of thousands of workers daily. 18 The Yongle Emperor also Ming Emperor Yongle 1402-1424 initiated many other grand building projects, such as the restoration of the Grand canal, which had lain dilapidated for many decades. The reason this restoration was important was to solve the perennial problem of shipping grain north to the capital.Shipping the annual four million shi 19 was made difficult because the previous method of shipping through the East China Sea or by various inland canal routes that included the loading and unloading the Heijdra, Martin. (1988) â€Å"The Socio-Economic Development of Rural China During the Ming†, in Mote, Frederick W. ; Twitchett, Denis (eds. ), Cambridge History of China: The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part One. Cambridge University Press. p. 580 17 Atwell, William S. (2002) â€Å"Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the Great Depression of the MidFifteenth Century,† The Journal of Asian Studies (Volume 61, Number 1). p. 83-113. 18 Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006) East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 272 19 Ancient Chinese measurement. One shi is equal to about 107 litres. 16 6|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes grain onto several different barges was proven to be rather inefficient and time consuming. 20 June 5, 2011 To a certain extent, the Ming state itself facilitated the movement of goods to market by relocating the capital to Beijing in the far north, away from the rich and pro sperous rice growing areas of Southern China.This resulted in a natural market for the demands of goods in the north, if for no other reason than to feed the imperial household and court. This was one of the reasons why it was so important to keep the Grand Canal in working order. It was a major conduit for grain, salt, and other important commodities. Any taxes that were paid in kind were paid in grain, which was shipped along the Grand Canal. Thus, control of the Grand Canal was of critical importance to the Ming government. It was under the reign of Emperor Yongle that the Chinese first began to trade and interact with Europeans on any significant scale.The presence of Europeans would eventually prove to be the most contentious aspect of modern Chinese history, but during the Ming, European trade greatly expanded Chinese economic life, particularly in the southern regions. Through most of their history, the Chinese have concentrated largely on land, commerce, and exploration. How ever, the Yongle Emperor began to sponsor a series of naval expeditions during 1405 and the years that followed. The reasoning for these naval expeditions are varied, but the Yongle emperor wanted to expand trade with other countries and had a taste for imported and exotic goods.Merchants and Overseas Trade. From 1405 till 1433, the Chinese imperial eunuch Zheng He led seven ocean expeditions for the Yongle Emperor that are unmatched in world history. During this time, Zheng He travelled all the way from China to Southeast Asia and then on to India, all the way to major trading sites on India’s southwest coast. In his fourth voyage, he travelled to the Persian Gulf. But for the last three voyages, Zheng went even further, all the way to the east coast of Africa. These expeditions made China the world’s greatest commercial naval power in the world at the time, far superior to any European nation. 0 Early 17th century Chinese woodblock print, thought to represent Zheng H e's ships Brook, Timothy. (1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 46-7. 7|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes One purpose of these lavish expeditions was to overwhelm foreign peoples and to convince them beyond any doubt the extent and grandeur of Ming power, but more so, it was to increase China’s contacts in these areas and establishing stateregulated trade there. 21 The Ming government constantly intervened in foreign trade.Under the reigns of Emperors Hongwu, Yongle, and Jiajing, foreign trade by private merchants was completely prohibited. In reality, the bans on this trade never succeeded in anything but preventing the government from taxing private merchants. Private trade continued in secret because the coast was impossible to patrol and police adequately, and because local officials and scholar-gentry families in the coastal provinces actually colluded with merchants to build ships and trade. The smug gling was mainly with Japan and Southeast Asia, and it picked up after silver lodes were discovered in Japan in the early 1500s.Since silver was the main form of money in China, lots of people were willing to take the risk of sailing to Japan or Southeast Asia to sell products for Japanese silver, or to invite Japanese traders to come to the Chinese coast and trade in secret ports. Something that can be seen in Chinese society before the Ming dynasty is the general disgust and disapproval of merchants and foreign salesmen, but during the mid and later parts of the Ming dynasty, merchants brought along a large amount of social revolution and change. By the 15th Century, the Ming had abolished the restriction on private overseas trade and Ming merchants prospered.An extensive expansion of trade followed with only trade to nations at war with China prohibited. 22 At that time, Denis Twitchett claims that China, apart from being a lucrative market for Ming Paper Money Europeans, was the largest and wealthiest 23 nation on earth. The most important parts of all this trade was the importation of silver. The governments of both Hongwu and Zhengtong (1435-1449) attempted to cut the flow of silver into the economy in favour of paper currency, yet mining the June 5, 2011 21 22 Li, Bo; Zheng, Yin. (2001) 5000 Years of Chinese History.Inner Mongolian Peoples’ Publishing House. p. 996 ibid. p. 996 23 Huang, Ray. (1988), â€Å"The Ming Fiscal Administration†, in Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John K. (eds. ), The Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty 1398-1644, Part Two. Cambridge University Press. pp. 110-113. 8|P a ge precious metal simply became a lucrative illegal pursuit practiced by many. 24 Emperor Hongwu seemed unaware of the situation of economic inflation, even as he continued to hand out multitudes of paper currency as awards; by 1425, paper currency was only worth around 0. 014% its original value.Eventually, the state stopped issuing paper currency because the population had lost faith in it. 25 Andrew Paul Stokes June 5, 2011 By the late sixteenth century, China was intimately a part of the growing global economy. The Chinese were trading actively with the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the Japanese, who all traded silver for Chinese silks and porcelain. The Ming shipped silks to Manila in the Philippines and there traded with the Spanish for silver, firearms, and American goods such as sugar, potatoes, and tobacco. Chinese Ming blue and white porcelain became all the rage in Europe and was highly prized.The Dutch East India Company alone handled the trade of 6 million porcelain items from China to Europe between the years 1602 to 1682. 26 Patricia Buckley Ebrey writes of the considerable size of commercial transactions on the silk goods traded to Europe: â€Å"In one case a galleon to the Spanish territories in the New World carried over 50’000 pairs of silk stockings. In return China imported mostly silv er from Peruvian and Mexican mines transported via Manila. Chinese merchants were active in these trading ventures, and many emigrated to such places as the Philippines and Borneo to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities. 27 In 1435, however, court scholars wrongly convinced the Hongwu emperor that the decline of the dynasty would be signalled by a taste in foreign wares, so China greatly contracted its commercial and maritime expansion it had begun so auspiciously. They would later be renewed under the rule of the Yongle Emperor, but again they were curtailed after the death of Zheng He. The situations of missions coming to an end resulted in the eviction of Ming troops from Vietnam which brought significant costs to the Ming treasury. 8 The lavish expense of the sailing fleets with high eunuch power at court was another big factor (Zheng He himself was also a eunuch as were many other naval commanders), so the halting of funding for these ventures was seen as a means to curtail further eunuch influence and power at court and in high positions. 29 There was also the great threat of a revival of Mongol power in the north which drew much of the attention away from other matters; to face this threat, a massive amount of funds and manpower was Brook, Timothy. (1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China.Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 68-69 25 Fairbank, John K. ; Goldman, Merle. (2006) China: A New History. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 134. 26 ibid. p. 206 27 Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; (1999) The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press. p. 211. 28 Fairbank, John K. ; Goldman, Merle. (2006) China: A New History. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p. 138 29 ibid. pp. 138-139 24 9|P a ge Andrew Paul Stokes used to restore, rebuild, and extend the Great Wall. 0 Many scholars and historians believe that Yongle’s move of the capital from Nanjing to Beiji ng in the north was largely in response of the need to keep a closer eye on the Mongols in the north and to better prepare to defend. June 5, 2011 Economic and Dynastic Collapse. There were numerous causes for the decline and fall of the Ming despite the auspicious start of the dynasty under the Hongwu emperor. The most immediate and direct cause of the fall was the rebellions in the seventeenth century and the aggressive military expansion of the Manchu armies.The decline of the dynasty, however, began much sooner, perhaps even as early as the initial establishment of the dynasty. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, what is now referred to as the ‘Little Ice Age’ 31 severely curtailed Chinese agriculture in the Northern provinces, famine, drought, and other disaster befell Northern China, bringing peasant revolts. The inability to collect taxes resulted in armies not being paid. Many of these troops joined the rebels making the situation worse.During the last years of Empe ror Wanli’s reign, and those of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centred on a sudden widespread lack of the empire’s chief medium of exchange: silver. Through acts of piracy staged by the Protestant Dutch and the English against the Catholic empires of Spain and Portugal in order to weaken their global economic power, the flow of silver into China slowed. 32 The only flow of silver into China came from the illegal smuggling from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific in favour of shipping directly from Spain o Manila. In 1639, the new Tokugawa regime of Japan shut down most of its foreign trade with Europe, causing a further halt of silver coming into China†¦ though the Japanese silver still flowed in small amounts. 33 The occurrence of these events at the same time caused a dramatic spike in the value of silver and made the payment of taxes nearly impossible in most provinces. For peasants this was an economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and selling their crops with copper coins. 4 Famine, as well as tax increases, widespread military desertions, flooding, the inability of the government to properly manage irrigation ibid. p. 139 Little Ice Age – was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period. While not a true ice age, the term was introduced into scientific literature by Francois E. Matthes in 1939. It is conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries. 32 Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) The Search for Modern China: Second Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 19 33 Brook, Timothy. 1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 208 34 Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) The Search for Modern China: Second Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 20-21. 31 30 10 | P a g e and flood control projects, caused the widespread loss of life and suffering. 3 5 Due to lack of resources, the central government didn’t have the means to mitigate the effects of these calamities. Andrew Paul Stokes June 5, 2011 The Ming Dynasty's economy was always in disarray because of the lack of knowledge on how to run an effective treasury.Paper money removed from circulation and was replaced with coinage, which eventually lost most of their value due to counterfeiting. However, since there were not enough coins in circulation, counterfeiting became a massive problem. At this point, the provinces were required to mint their own coins; unfortunately, some of them added lead to the coins, which depleted their value. Due to the abundance of counterfeit coins, their value again declined. This coin problem was amplified by an increasing need for money due to the growth of trade, and the threat of military campaigns that proved very costly.Chongzhen, The Last Emperor. During the rule of the final Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor, the situation just b egan to worsen. Chongzhen tried to rule by himself and did his best to try and salvage the dynasty, correcting all the mistakes of those who ruled previously, but it seemed it was too little too late. After years of internal corruption and an almost empty treasury, it became almost impossible to find capable ministers to fill important government posts. It also didn’t help that Chongzhen was incredibly suspicious and mistrusting of the few skilled subordinates that he did have.In 1644, the rebels under the command of Li Zicheng took Beijing, ending the Ming rule in the North. Rather than face capture, humiliation, and possible execution at the hands of the newly proclaimed Shun Dynasty 36, Chongzhen arranged Ming Emperor Chongzhen (1627-1644) a feast and gathered all the members of the imperial household, aside from his sons. Using a sword, he killed everyone there. ibid. p. 21 Shun Dynasty – was an imperial dynasty created in the brief lapse from Ming to Qing rule in China. The dynasty was founded in Xi'an on 8 February 1644, the first day of the lunar year, by Li Zicheng, the leader of a large peasant rebellion.Li, however, only went by the title of King (? ), not Emperor ( ). The capture of Beijing by the Shun forces in April 1644 marked the end of the Ming dynasty, but Li Zicheng failed to solidify his mandate: in late May 1644, he was defeated at the Battle of Shanhai Pass by the joint forces of Ming general Wu Sangui and Manchu prince Dorgon. When he fled back to Beijing in early June, Li finally proclaimed himself emperor of China and left the capital in a hurry. The Shun dynasty ended with Li's death in 1645. 36 35 11 | P a g e Andrew Paul StokesEveryone died except his daughter Princess Changping. Chongzhen then fled to Jingshan Hill and committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree in the garden. 37 Regimes loyal to the Ming throne continued to reign in southern China until 1662. June 5, 2011 Conclusion. So in conclusion, during the Ming Dynasty, China saw perhaps the greatest change and rebirth in their history. The Ming Empire found the perfect balance of empirical power and Confucianism, culture and technology were revolutionised, allowing the expansion of wealth trade and nationalism.Political implements and modification had contoured China into a strong and supple empire, extending its fingers south to Vietnam and north to Manchuria. Combining typical Confucian methods of governance, a strong empirical head, and an extended base of power amongst court eunuchs, Ming China successfully rehabilitated the greatness of the Tang and Han dynasties. It was the world’s largest economy of its age. It was also the most powerful and largest military power in all of Asia. Science, economy and military strength from the early Ming Dynasty onwards culminated in the greatest age of maritime exploration in Chinese History. 8 Economically, the Ming Dynasty was a period during which the feudal society began to show th e declining trend while the concept of capitalism started to originate. In agriculture, both the food output and the implements of production surpassed that of earlier dynasties. The most spectacular advancement in Ming China probably was the evolution of maritime exploration which opened China up to the world†¦ albeit briefly. The increased knowledge of the seas and the navigational tools aided the Chinese in forging an empire that could trade with places half the world away.But, inexperience and neglect by the Ming rulers contributed greatly to the downfall of the dynasty, as well as corruption of the court officials and the domination of the eunuchs inside the court. If, for instance, instead of turning to eunuchs to help check on Court officials, the emperors turned to his immediate relatives or maternal relations, it could also have led to, as history of Han and Jin dynasties had shown, factionalism that weakened the empire. Instead of eunuchs being the problem, imperial r elations would have been the problem.The government officials were cruel and extorted unreasonable taxes. The combination of natural calamity and human oppression drove the peasants to a revolt. The disasters of Ming dynasty can be allocated such: 70% human error. The officials were greedy and extorted taxes from the victims. The state increased taxes without thought of the disasters, eventually leading to peasant revolt. The Ming dynasty could have decisively chose policies to alleviate suffering after suppressing Li Zicheng’s first revolt: make necessary changes to the Spence, Jonathan D. 1999) The Search for Modern China: Second Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 25 38 Brook, Timothy. (1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: University of California Press. 37 12 | P a g e Andrew Paul Stokes government officials and taxation policies, allocate the wealth to aid the victims and to pacify the masses, then Li Zicheng’s movement would be unable to attract anyone. The fall of the capital to the peasant army (or any other army) would not have occurred. June 5, 2011 Bibliography Atwell, William S. 2002) â€Å"Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the Great Depression of the Mid-Fifteenth Century†, the Journal of Asian Studies, 61 (1): 81-113, Cambridge University Press Brook, Timothy. (1998) The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China, Berkeley: University of California Press. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006) East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; (1999) The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press Fairbank, John K. nd Goldman, Merle. (2006) China: A New History. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press Graham, James. (Unknown Date). â€Å"Quantitative Growth, Qualitative Standstill: From www. HistoryOrb. com China's Economic Situati on 1368-1800†. website. http://www. historyorb. com/asia/china_economy. shtml (accessed 03/06/2011). Heijdra, Martin. (1988) â€Å"The Socio-Economic Development of Rural China During the Ming†, in Mote, Frederick W. and Twitchett, Denis (eds. ), Cambridge History of China: The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644, Part One, Cambridge University Press.Huang, Ray. (1988) â€Å"The Ming Fiscal Administration†, in Twitchett, Denis and Fairbank, John K. (eds. ) the Cambridge History of China, Volume 8: The Ming Dynasty 1398-1644, Part Two, Cambridge University Press. Li, Bo and Zheng, Yin. (2001) 5000 Years of Chinese History, Inner Mongolian Peoples’ Publishing House. 13 | P a g e Andrew Paul Stokes Mote, Frederick W. (1988), â€Å"Introduction†, in Twitchett, Denis and Mote, Frederick W. (eds. ) The Cambridge History of China, Vol 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368 – 1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press.Mote, Frederick W. (1988) â€Å"The Rise of the Ming Dynast y 1330 – 1367†, in Twitchett, Denis and Fairbank, John K. (eds. ) The Cambridge History of China, Vol 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368 – 1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather; Fairbank, John King and Craig, Albert M. (1960) A History of East Asian Civilisation, Vol 1. East Asia: The Great Tradition, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) The Search for Modern China: Second Edition. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. June 5, 2011 14 | P a g e