Radioactive Chemicals and Cigarettes

Radioactive Chemicals and Cigarettes Addiction Nicotine Use The Inside of Cigarettes Print Radioactive Chemicals and Cigarettes By Terry Martin facebook twitter Terry Martin quit smoking after 26 years and is now an advocate for those seeking freedom from nicotine addiction. Learn about our editorial policy Terry Martin Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Sanja Jelic, MD on February 22, 2017 Sanja Jelic, MD, is board-certified in sleep medicine, critical care medicine, pulmonary disease, and internal medicine.   Learn about our Medical Review Board Sanja Jelic, MD Updated on January 07, 2020 Yagi Studios/Getty Images More in Addiction Nicotine Use The Inside of Cigarettes After You Quit How to Quit Smoking Nicotine Withdrawal Smoking-Related Diseases Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Coping and Recovery As of Dec. 20, 2019, the new legal age limit is 21 years old for purchasing cigarettes, cigars, or any other tobacco products in the U.S. Most people, smokers and non-smokers alike, are surprised to learn that cigarette smoke contains radioactive particles. Even more shocking is the fact that when inhaled, these particles lodge in the lungs and stay there. Lead-210 (Pb-210) and polonium-210 (Po-210) are  poisonous, radioactive  heavy metals  that research has shown to be present in tobacco smoke. What are they and where do they come from? Understanding Lead-210 and Polonium-210 When  uranium, an ore that occurs in small amounts in nature, breaks down,  radium  is released as radon gas into the atmosphere. Once that occurs, radon gas decays quickly, producing lead-210 (Pb-210) and polonium-210 (Po-210), highly radioactive metals (known as radon decay products). Radon gas is the second leading cause of  lung cancer, claiming approximately 21,000 lives in the United States every year.  Cigarette smoking is the first, with approximately 158,080 lives lost to lung cancer annually in the U.S. Radon gas released from the soil can seep into buildings through cracks in the foundation. This is a concern in homes where we spend most of our time. If youre concerned about radon gas, look into having the air in your home tested and, if positive for radon, putting a venting measure in place. Radium is also present in phosphate fertilizers that are often used in tobacco farming and contributes to the amount of radioactive particles that are in contact with tobacco plants. How Lead-210 and Polonium-210 Get Into Tobacco As radium in the soil around tobacco plants releases radon gas, tiny lead and polonium particles float free and attach to bits of dust that are carried to the surface of tobacco leaves. These radioactive particles attach themselves to tobacco via the thousands of fine hairs covering the bottom surface of the leaves. In this way, radiation is  transported from the field to the processing plant. Once there, the tobacco leaves are washed, but  because Lead-210 and polonium-210 are both insoluble in water, the particles are not removed. Lead-210 and polonium-210 are present in finished tobacco products that go out to consumers.  In the case of cigarettes, these radioactive particles ultimately find a home in smokers lungs. In a study published in the American Journal of Public Health, researchers reviewed more than 1,500 tobacco industry documents. They discovered information that indicates the industry was aware of the dangers associated with polonium in cigarettes for over 40 years. They  hid their research in order to keep the public in the dark about radioactivity in cigarettes. What Happens When You Inhale Radioactive Metals? As a smoker breathes in cigarette smoke, lead-210 and polonium-210 stick to the  cigarette tar  that collects at the junctions of air passages within the lungs  called  bronchioles. Studies have shown that lead-210 and polonium-210 build-up at these locations and over time produce radioactive hot spots. In particular, polonium-210  emits alpha-radiation, which can seriously damage DNA. Inhaling lead-210 and polonium-210 is a significant risk factor for  lung cancer  because the build-up of radioactive particles in the lungs of smokers is cumulative and permanent. Radiation absorbed into the body is measured in units called rads.  Research has  shown that 15 rads of polonium  in lab mice can cause lung cancer. That amounts to about one-fifth of the rads absorbed by a smoker who smoked 2 packs a day for 25 years. Scientists looking at the lung tissue of smokers who  have died of lung cancer found that in most instances,  80 to 100 rads of polonium-210 had accumulated in the tissue. Secondhand Smoke Is Radioactive, Too Anyone who breathes in secondhand smoke exposes their lungs to the same toxic heavy metals that are associated with causing lung cancer in smokers. Approximately 7,330 lung cancer deaths in the United States today are caused by secondhand smoke. Further, these toxins are just two of the hundreds of poisonous and/or carcinogenic chemicals present in cigarette smoke. Dont Forget About the Toxins in Thirdhand Smoke Thirdhand smoke is the particulate residue from cigarette smoke that lingers in the air and settles on surfaces in enclosed spaces. It carries all of the same dangerous toxins that mainstream and secondhand smoke do, and is a particular threat to young children, who may touch tainted surfaces and then put their fingers in their mouths. Polonium-210 cannot be absorbed into the body from contact with  intact skin or mucous membranes. However, in the case of secondhand smoke, it is hazardous when inhaled, and thirdhand smoke, when ingested. A Word From Verywell To date, scientists have discovered  more than 7,000 chemicals, including 250 poisonous and 70 carcinogenic compounds,  in cigarettes and cigarette smoke. Some chemicals are byproducts of combustion, some are  additives that tobacco manufacturers use  to affect the taste, burn time, and more. Tobacco is responsible for more than 440,000 deaths in the United States each year. Around the world, that number rises to 6 million, including more than half a million non-smokers who were exposed to  secondhand smoke. The toxins in cigarettes and cigarette smoke cause numerous types of cancer, heart disease, and COPD. Radiation plays a deadly role as well. There is no safe level of exposure to cigarette smoke. If youre not a smoker but are exposed to cigarette smoke in enclosed spaces, you face similar risks that smokers do, including lung cancer and other smoking-related cancers. Stay away from cigarette smoke. And if you smoke, the best thing you can do for yourself is quit. Learn what you can expect when you quit smoking and what you can do  to minimize the discomforts that come with  nicotine withdrawal. Also, find a support group. There is nothing better than the help and camaraderie that comes when you connect with  people who understand what youre going through when you quit smoking. Heres the bottom line:  dont fear quitting and dont put it off. The sooner you get started, the less the damage to your health.

The Role Of Homeland Security From The United States...

The role of Homeland Security originated from the Founding Fathers, under the United States Constitution, that created a system and gave the primary role of homeland security to state and local governments (Oliver, 2007). When state and local governments became overwhelmed and could no longer effectively deal with a crisis then homeland security government would assist those governments (Oliver, 2007). The relationship was created through the United States Constitution in Article 4, Section 4, which declared that â€Å"the United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a Republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened) against domestic violence† (U.S. Constitution, 2015) (Oliver, 2007). President John F. Kennedy was elected 1961, and made it a priority to necessitate organizational changes with homeland security (Oliver, 2007). Pre sident John F. Kennedy felt that local governments were doing little if anything to prepare for natural disasters and civil defense (Oliver, 2007). This became a priority for the Kennedy administration, and the office of civil and Defense mobilization was split into two agencies that became known as the Office of Emergency Planning and the Office of Civil Defense (Oliver, 2007). President Carter, President Clinton, and President George W. Bush all made additional organizational changes that resulted in theShow MoreRelatedRationale , Pros and Cons of the Dual Law Enforcement System888 Words   |  4 PagesCriminal Justice System â€Å"The judicial system of the United States is unique in so far as it is actually made up of two different court systems, the Federal Court System and the State Court System†. ( United States Courts). â€Å"The U. S. Constitution created a governmental structure for the United States known as Federalism. The Constitution gives certain powers to the federal government and reserves the res for the states.. The Constitution states that the governments is supreme with regard to thoseRead MoreEssay on The Backbone of the US Legal System: The Constitution711 Words   |  3 PagesLegal System: The Constitution The Constitution is the founding document for the United States government and is the highest law of the country. The U.S Constitution is the backbone of the legal system which defines the structure of government, guarantees the rights to its citizens and provides the basis on which all American laws are made. No other national laws may disagree with any of the Constitutions ideology and the federal courts have jurisdiction to interpret the Constitution and evaluate theRead MoreThe Homeland Security Act Essay833 Words   |  4 PagesThe Homeland Security Act of 2002 impacted the American people without many of them realizing it. The act called for increased monitoring of computer networks, phone lines, and online history inside the United States and allowed the government to deport suspects (ACLU). What was created by the act has snaked its way into all aspects of our lives, creating a sense of order and restricting some freedom. However, some say that this imposition into our daily lives limits our freedoms and actions allowedRead MoreEssay about Analysis of the United States President1425 Words   |  6 Pagesgranted by US constitution and court case engal, then the structure of executive branch, starting with the president ending with the cabinet. Lastly I will give my analysis pertain to the current president. The Authority of government is derived from the US constitution in regards with the executive branch the authority comes from article II of the US constitution. The language of the constitutions describe many aspect and roles of the oval office such as executive of the law, role in legislativeRead MoreThe Department Of Homeland Security Essay786 Words   |  4 PagesUnder the Constitution of the United States has mandated the government to protect the United States of America from any threat, foreign and domestic. The government must deter and prevent attacks on our homeland and as well as deter and threats from potentially occurring. Following 9/11, the Department of Defense has been entrusted with the role in the management of risks facing the United Sates. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has stated that it will apply risk management principlesRead MoreImmigration Act Of The Border1473 Words   |  6 Pageslimited resources and little supervision. They attempted to prevent Chinese illegal migration as they patrolled along the border in California. However, from 1915, resources such as horses, cars and boats were added to a more specified group, authorized and named â€Å"mounted inspectors† by Congress. They patrolled the southern border with instructions from Commissioner-General of Immigration (U.S. Customs and Border Protection, n.d). Their patrolling efforts were still limited because they were majorlyRead MoreThe Department Of Homeland Security991 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Considering the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)has only initiated actions in 2003, it has performed necessary security procedures and accomplished significant purposes and breakthroughs. As DHS progresses to grow, more activity predominates for them to address weaknesses in its current operational strategy. Implementation efforts are in place to strengthen the efficiency and to integrate its management areas (acquisitions, financial management, human capital, and information technology)Read MoreRole Of The Department Of Homeland Security1659 Words   |  7 PagesRole of the DHS in Counterterrorism On September 11, 2011, the United States observed the tenth anniversary of the worst terrorist attacks in the history of the United States . The creation of many anti-terrorism organizations was a clear message that this threat is beyond a single military or intelligence capacity. Our citizens demanded a strong response that would prevent any future terrorist threat. President Bush created the Department of Homeland Security as the key agency responsible forRead MoreIntelligence Sharing And The Capabilities Of The Homeland Security Enterprise Essay1670 Words   |  7 PagesIntelligence Sharing and the Capability of the Homeland Security Enterprise What are the capabilities and limitations of intelligence in supporting homeland security efforts? Since the deadly terror attacks of 9/11, intelligence gathering for homeland security has improved immensely. One of the most important developments in our law-enforcement structure that has enhanced our intelligence is the creation of fusion centers. Fusion centers are â€Å"state and major urban area focal points for the receiptRead MoreNational Security Policy: Before and After September 11, 20011576 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction From the fledgling beginnings in the history of the United States, the populace of the newly formed republic were concerned with protecting into perpetuity their hard-won independence. To ensure that democracy would rein unchallenged, a formalized guarantee, the Constitution, spelled out whom would comprise the actors and what processes were to be made available for governance. Distinct roles were drafted for both the president and Congress for the purposes of evenly distributing

The Harbinger Of A Category Crisis - 1157 Words

Victor Frankenstein: The Harbinger of a Category Crisis Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus partially follows the narrative of Victor Frankenstein in his journey of mental and moral deterioration. Victor’s attempt to unnaturally create life through unorthodox methods is his metaphorical attempt to play with fire; he explores a realm beyond human capability by using a power only known to God. This novel leaves readers with a dilemma that makes them question who in fact is really the monster of this story, the creature he created or Victor himself. According to Jeffrey Jerome Cohen’s â€Å"Seven Monster Theses†, Frankenstein may actually be the embodiment of the monster of his third thesis in this story. The reasons Victor may conform to being the â€Å"Harbinger of a Category Crisis† is because of his seclusion from his family and the rest of society and his unethical inquiry and exploration into the laws of nature beyond what is thought to be possible. In the initial stages of the book, Victor spends a large amount of time away from his home and family in Geneva to heavily indulge in his studies. His academics consisted of natural philosophy and sciences, especially in the creation of life and its death and decay. Even after he was done studying, he locked himself away in his apartment in preparation for his experiment of artificially creating life. Victor even acknowledges that the pursuit of his work has caused him to â€Å"forget those friends who were so many milesShow MoreRelatedThe Understanding of the Monster Essay1143 Words   |  5 Pagesalso can provide us with possible solutions to gaps and uncertainties in our mind that Sigmund Freud would label as â€Å"The Uncanny†. I can only but agree with Cohen’s proclamations that the monster’s body is a cultural body, a monster is the harbinger of category crisis, and a monster stands at the threshold of becoming. These theses attempt to explain the diversity of the term monster when it com es to different cultures and the human imagination of what has been, is, and can be. The first of the sevenRead MoreFrom The Beginning Of Time, Humans Have Struggled To Make1030 Words   |  5 Pagesclosely with a couple of Jeffrey Jerome Cohen’s theses about monster culture. Two of the theses that Dr. Jekyll relates to are â€Å"Thesis VI: Fear of the Monster Is Really a Kind of Desire† (Course Pack 67) and â€Å"Thesis III: The Monster Is the Harbinger of Category Crisis† (60). Jekyll desired and longed for his potion. After much thought, he came to the conclusion that he needed it. He wasn’t forced. It was â€Å"with a strong glow of courage† (Stevenson 44) he drank his potion. At the time, he was unaware ofRead MoreButler ´s Characterization Shori1105 Words   |  5 Pagessociety’s homophobia and conservative beliefs about sex. A final way that Shori exemplifies Cohen’s idea of monster culture is that she is the result of a genetic experiment, a crossbreed. Shori is both human and vampire, the ultimate â€Å"harbinger of category crisis† (Cohen). Additionally, she is both black and white. However, instead of this hybridization being a handicap it is advantageous and essential to her survival. This is a new idea since in the past both miscegenation and cross breeding haveRead MoreRichard Matheson s I Am Legend 1154 Words   |  5 Pagesboogey-man for he genuinely terrified them. He witnessed their fear as he looked out from his bars and heard the startled cries. A startling ironic revelation for him. To them, he was possibly far worse than the plague. He s considered as a â€Å"harbinger of category crisis†Ã¢â‚¬â€utilizing Cohen s words—as he posed a threat to the new society being established by the infected-vampiric humans. A fact he comes to term with during his final moment s. â€Å"Normalcy was a majority concept, the standard of many and not theRead MoreAnalysis Of The Book Cold Mountain 1296 Words   |  6 Pagesstruggle which an individual must face in order to survive in a natural environment. From Frazier’s standpoint, the usage of this particular quotation could be a confirmation of Darwin’s influence on his literature. The term naturalism describes a category of literature that applies scientific principles of detachment and objectivity to its reading of human beings. The literary movement of naturalism got its foundation from Darwin’s theory of evolution. In his novel, Frazier makes use of real historicalRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of Cold Mountain 1298 Words   |  6 Pagesstruggle which an individual must face in order to survive in a natural environment. From Frazier’s standpoint, the usage of this particular quotation could be a confirmation of Darwin’s influence on his literature. The term naturalism describes a category of literature that applies scientific principles of detachment and objectivity to its reading of human beings. The literary movement of naturalism got its foundation from Darwin’s theory of evolution. In his novel, Frazier makes use of real historicalRead MoreMore than 95% of U.S. Homes use Arm and Hammer Products1329 Words   |  5 Pagestechnology. This was quite helpful for the company at the beginning but as the time passed by, the growth of 15% annually started to become static which raised concern at the higher management devising a new strategy to steer company out of the looming crisis. To give an overview of whole situation, sales became stagnant as company’s strategy was to sell products which are extensions to baking soda i.e. sodium carbonate. To bring in a change, for the first time in 156 years, management affairs were transferredRead MoreHuman Security and National Security2199 Words   |  9 Pagesto the human security and provides a holistic concept in this regard. There have been mentioned around seven categories of threats which have been faced by human beings on the earth. The security and its conditions are to be realized in the domain of economic security, food security, political security, personal security, health security and environmental security. Hence from these categories of security, one can comprehend that conceptualization and realization of human security entails into its foldRead MoreCompare Leadership Styles Between Jack Welch and Jeff Immelt4058 Words   |  17 PagesWelch was a ruthless taskmaster at GE. Immelt works with long term perspective rather with a short term one. Immelt proved that he is a very effective leader by helping GE overcome the hardship in 2001 when terrorist attacks on September 11 were a harbinger of bad times to come for GE. (see Appendix B, Story 2) It’s really difficult to say this leader is better than another one. To compare and contrast them, in the range of this paper, in terms of leadership, we would just use leadership styles, traitsRead MoreThe Politics Of Political Parties3081 Words   |  13 Pagesprivate colleges, charities, and cultural institutions. Many were pietistic Protestant who called for public schools to instill moral values and suggested prohibition to end the liquor problem. The Whigs attracted voters from every socio-economic category but proved particularly attractive to the professional and business classes: doctors, attorneys, sellers, ministers, bankers, storekeepers, factory owners, commercially oriented farmers and large-scale planters. Because of the party platform, commercial

Diwali Festival of Lights Free Essays

Divya Reddy Pidaparti Composition I Novemeber 19, 2012 Mayra Garcia Diwali: Festival Of Lights (Extra Credit) The event I attended was the celebration of Diwali Festival sponsored by the Indian Student Association of Texas AM University Corpus Christi. This event was held on Thursday, November 15 from 2:30-5:30 P. M. We will write a custom essay sample on Diwali: Festival of Lights or any similar topic only for you Order Now First the event started off with a speech by Divya Pidaparti talking about what Diwali is. Diwali is much more than sweets, lights and fireworks. It’s good over evil and light over darkness. Diwali is one of the most significant festivals in India. Indians celebrate Diwali with family gatherings, glittering clay lamps, festive fireworks, flowers, sweets and worship to Goddess Lakshmi. Some belive that Lakshmi wanders the Earth looking for homes where she will be welcomed. People often their doors and windows and light lamps to invite Lakshmi in. The speech was followed by a prayer song called â€Å"Gananayaka† by Ravitej Kondepudy. Gananayaka is a song dedicated to Lord Ganesh. After that 4 girls (Pavithra, Haritha, Pratyusha and Varsha) danced to a song called Vande Maataram. Vande Maataram is the nation anthem of India. This song praises India and its beauty. Followed by the song was a dance by Ravi and the 4 girls to the song called Desham Manade. It literally means â€Å"our country† in Telugu. It is a portrayal of unity in diversity. Dr. Bala is one of the faculty members of Texas AM University Corpus Christi. His daughter, Adithi performed a dance called Bharathanatyam. It is a classical dance of India. Then the event almost came to an end by a sensational medley by Sandeep, Bharath, Ravi, Pratyusha, Pavithra, Haritha and Varsha. The sensational medley was composed of four different songs- Barso Re, Dethadhi Dethadhi, Gaajulu ghallu mannave and Naka Muka. Barso Re is a country style dance. Dethadi Dethadi is a folk-style courtship dance. Gaajulu Ghallu Mannave is a song of bangles and finally Naka Muka is street dancing. After all the events concluded, president of ISA Naga Sandeep said thanks to everyone who attended the event and made it a blast. The stage was left open as a dance floor. Everyone went up there and danced. People danced, ate amazing indian food and had fun with family and friends. It was a memorable event for everyone. How to cite Diwali: Festival of Lights, Essay examples

The Blind Si free essay sample

Blind Side Summary: The blind side directed by John Lee Hancock is based on a true story about how a couple Leigh Anne and Sean take on a homeless African American boy names Michael. Michael is not very educated and so at the beginning he fails all his subjects. Leigh Anne starts to help Michael with his grades and also with his football. She sees the potential in him. Living in this totally different environment, Michael faces a completely different set of challenges to overcome. Main Characters:Michael Oher: The African American who is taken in by the Tuohy family. Leigh Anne and Sean Tuohy: The couple that help Michael fulfil his potential. SJ: Son of Leigh Anne and Sean, becomes almost like a brother to Michael. Who is the outsider and why? In this film Michael Oher is the outsider because of his race. People also picked on him for his weight. We will write a custom essay sample on The Blind Si or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page He feels like he doesn’t belong anywhere, he constantly runs away from his foster parents. He doesn’t have any sense of belonging or acceptance into society.He also feels like an outsider because he doesn’t really have a family. Film Techniques: In the film when Michael Oher is walking into school there is a close-up on his face and you can see the emotion. This helps to show how he feels like an outsider walking into the school. Quotes: Beth: Youre changing that boys life. Leigh Anne Touhy: No. Hes changing mine. Sean: Michaels gift is his ability to forget. Hes mad at no one and he really doesnt care happened in the past.Michael: But honour, thats the real reason for you either do something or you dont. Its who you are and maybe who you want to be. If you die trying for something important, then you have both honour and courage, and thats pretty good. I think thats what the writer was saying, that you should hope for courage and try for honour. And maybe even pray that the people telling you what to do have some, too. Leigh Anne Touhy: Yo, deliverance. You see number 74? Well, thats *my* son.

Abortion Essays (749 words) - Fertility, Gender Studies, Free Essays

Abortion Essays (749 words) - Fertility, Gender Studies, Free Essays Abortion Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy before the fetus is capable of independent life. Abortions must be conducted before the end off six months, or the fetus will leave the womb and it would be considered a premature birth. There are two types of abortions. One is spontaneous and the other is induced. If the fetus ways less than 18oz or is less than 20 weeks into the pregnancy, it is usually considered an abortion. Spontaneous abortions are known by another name, miscarriages. These usually occur during the first three months of pregnancy. It is estimated that 25% of all pregnancies end in spontaneous abortion. The second form of abortion is induced abortion. This is the deliberate termination of the fetus. There are four main types of induced abortions. The first takes place up to 12 weeks. It is called vacuum aspiration. This is where a tube attached to a vacuum is inserted into the uterus and sucks out the embryo and all other material. The second type takes place after the 15th week and is called saline infusion. Here, the doctors replace a little fluid with a salt solution. This causes the uterus to contract. The fetus is then expelled. The third type is a hysterotomy. This is a similar procedure to a cesarean section. The only difference is, in this operation, is that the cut is smaller and lower. The fourth type is available in the first fifty days. It is a drug called RU-486. It was developed in France and approved for sale there in 1988. Clinical trials in the United States began in 1994. When performed under proper conditions, the sooner the person has the baby, the less risk she is at. The likelihood of complications increase as the woman gets farther into the pregnancy. Although, an abortion has less of a risk of injury than does actually delivering the baby. Abortion is one topic that has been heavily debated. Many cases have gone to court over an abortion. Perhaps the most famous case was Roe vs. Wade. It was a case that was settled in 1973 under Justice Blackman. The Supreme Court ruled that they could not ban abortions in the first six months of the pregnancy. After six months, the states can ban an abortion except in cases in which the woman's health is at risk. I think that there is a lot that can be done. First of all, I think that some kind of law needs to be created that will be supported by many. Secondly, we have to let the public be aware of all the things that are going on around them. Lastly, we have to keep the children's future in mind. Here is what I think should be done. A law should be passed that says: A woman does not have the right to an abortion, except in the case of rape or when the birth may endanger the life of the mother. If a woman is not eligible for an abortion, but does not want the baby, the state should find someone to adopt the baby. An additional fund should be given to the mother for delivering the baby. The one's chosen to adopt should be well picked and capable of supporting the child well. I feel this way because I am pro-life. I feel that every baby should be given the right to live. A baby should not be denied life because the mother does not want to care for it. That is why I feel that the unwanted children should always be set for adoption before the birth of the child. I also feel that the fund should be given to the mother because she had to take care of the baby in her womb for nine months. I feel that women should be able to get an abortion in the event of rape because it is not with a person that she planned to have a child with. It is also obvious why I feel that women should be eligible for an abortion if her health is in danger. I have told you the way I feel, now it is time that we all make a decision on this topic.

100 Commonly Used Terms in English Grammar

100 Commonly Used Terms in English Grammar This collection provides a quick review of the basic terminology used in the study of traditional English grammar. For a more detailed examination of the word forms and sentence structures introduced here, click on any of the terms to visit a glossary page, where youll find numerous examples and expanded discussions. Abstract Noun A noun (such as courage or freedom) that names an idea, event, quality, or concept. Contrast with a concrete noun. Active Voice The verb form or voice in which the subject of the sentence performs or causes the action expressed by the verb. Contrast with passive voice. Adjective The part of speech (or word class) that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Adjective forms: positive, comparative, superlative. Adjective: adjectival. Adverb The part of speech (or word class) that is primarily used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs can also modify prepositional phrases, subordinate clauses, and complete sentences. Affix A prefix, suffix, or infix: a word element (or morpheme) that can be attached to a base or root to form a new word. Noun: affixation. Adjective: affixable. Agreement The correspondence of a verb with its subject in person and number, and of a pronoun with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. Appositive A noun, noun phrase, or series of nouns used to identify or rename another noun, noun phrase, or pronoun. Article A type of determiner that precedes a noun: a, an, or the. Attributive An adjective that usually comes before the noun it modifies without a linking verb. Contrast with a predicative adjective. Auxiliary A verb that determines the mood or tense of another verb in a verb phrase. Also known as a helping verb. Contrast with a lexical verb. Base The form of a word to which prefixes and suffixes are added to create new words. Capital Letter The form of an alphabetical letter (such as A, B, C) used to begin a sentence or proper noun; an uppercase letter, in contrast to lower case. Verb: capitalize. Case A characteristic of nouns and certain pronouns that express their relationship to other words in a sentence. Pronouns have three case distinctions: subjective, possessive, and objective. In English, nouns have only one case inflection, the possessive. The case of nouns other than the possessive is sometimes called the common case. Clause A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause may be either a sentence (an independent clause) or a sentence-like construction within a sentence (a dependent clause). Common Noun A noun that can be preceded by the definite article and that represents one or all of the members of a class. As a general rule, a common noun does not begin with a capital letter unless it appears at the start of a sentence. Common nouns can be subcategorized as count nouns and mass nouns. Semantically, common nouns can be classified as abstract nouns and concrete nouns. Contrast with a proper noun. Comparative The form of an adjective or adverb involving a comparison of more or less, greater or lesser. Complement A word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence. The two kinds of compliments are subject complements (which follow the verb be and other linking verbs) and object complements  (which follow a direct object). If it identifies the subject, the complement is a noun or pronoun; if it describes the subject, the complement is an adjective. Complex Sentence A sentence that contains at least one independent clause and one dependent clause. Compound-Complex Sentence A sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. Compound Sentence A sentence that contains at least two independent clauses. Conditional Clause A type of adverbial clause that states a hypothesis or condition, real or imagined. A conditional clause may be introduced by the subordinating conjunction if or another conjunction, such as unless or in the case of. Conjunction The part of speech (or word class) that serves to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. The two main types of conjunction are coordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. Contraction A shortened form of a word or group of words (such as doesnt and wont), with the missing letters usually marked by an apostrophe. Coordination The grammatical connection of two or more ideas to give them equal emphasis and importance. Contrast with subordination. Count Noun A noun that refers to an object or idea that can form a plural or occur in a noun phrase with an indefinite article or with numerals. Contrast with a mass noun (or noncount noun). Declarative Sentence A sentence in the form of a statement (in contrast to a command, a question, or an exclamation). Definite Article In English, the definite article the is a determiner that refers to particular nouns. Compare to indefinite article. Demonstrative A determiner that points to a particular noun or to the noun it replaces. The demonstratives are this, that, these, and those. A demonstrative pronoun distinguishes its antecedent from similar things. When the word precedes a noun, it is sometimes called a demonstrative adjective. Dependent Clause A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as a subordinate clause. Determiner A word or a group of words that introduces a noun. Determiners include articles, demonstratives, and possessive pronouns. Direct Object A noun or pronoun in a sentence that receives the action of a transitive verb. Compare to an indirect object. Ellipsis The omission of one or more words, which must be supplied by the listener or reader. Adjective: elliptical or elliptic. Plural, ellipses. Exclamatory Sentence A sentence that expresses strong feelings by making an exclamation. (Compare with sentences that make a statement, express a command, or ask a question.) Future Tense A verb form indicating the action that has not yet begun. The simple future is usually formed by adding the  auxiliary  will  or  shall  to the  base form of a verb. Gender A grammatical classification which in English applies primarily to the third-person singular  personal pronouns:  he, she, him, her, his, hers. Gerund A  verbal  that ends in  -ing  and functions as a noun. Grammar The set of rules and examples dealing with the  syntax  and word structures of a language. Head The keyword that determines the nature of a  phrase. For example, in a  noun phrase, the head is a noun or pronoun. Idiom A set expression of two or more words that means something other than the literal meanings of its individual words. Imperative Mood The form of the verb that makes direct commands and requests. Imperative Sentence A sentence that gives advice or instructions or that expresses a request or command. (Compare with sentences that make a  statement, ask a  question, or express an  exclamation.) Indefinite Article The  determiner  an  or  an, which marks an unspecified  count noun.  A  is used before a word that starts with a  consonant  sound (a bat, a unicorn).  An  is used before a word that starts with a  vowel  sound (an uncle, an hour). Independent Clause A group of words made up of a  subject  and a  predicate. An independent clause (unlike a  dependent clause) can stand alone as a  sentence. Also known as the  main clause. Indicative Mood The  mood  of the verb used in ordinary statements: stating a fact, expressing an opinion, asking a question. Indirect Object A noun or pronoun that indicates to whom or for whom the action of a verb in a sentence is performed. Indirect Question A sentence that reports a  question  and ends with a  period  rather than a  question mark. Infinitive A  verbalusually preceded by the  particle  tothat can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Inflection A process of word formation in which items are added to the  base  form of a word to express grammatical meanings. -ing  Form A contemporary linguistic term for the  present participle  and  gerund: any verb form that ends in  -ing. Intensifier A word that emphasizes another word or phrase. Intensifying adjectives modify nouns; intensifying adverbs commonly modify verbs,  gradable  adjectives, and other adverbs. Interjection The part of speech that usually expresses emotion and is capable of standing alone. Interrogative Sentence A sentence that asks a question. (Compare with sentences that make a  statement, deliver a  command, or express an  exclamation.) Interrupting Phrase A word group (a statement, question, or exclamation) that interrupts the flow of a sentence and is usually set off by commas, dashes, or parentheses. Intransitive Verb A verb that does not take a  direct object. Contrast with a transitive verb. Irregular Verb A verb that does not follow the usual rules for verb forms. Verbs in English are irregular if they do not have a conventional  -ed  form. Linking Verb A verb, such as a form of  be  or  seem, that joins the subject of a sentence to a  complement. Also known as a  copula. Mass Noun A noun (such as  advice, bread, knowledge) that names things which cannot be counted. A mass noun (also known as a  non-count noun) is used only in the singular. Contrast with  count noun. Modal A verb that combines with another verb to indicate  mood  or  tense. Modifier A word, phrase, or clause that functions as an adjective or adverb to limit or qualify the meaning of another word or word group (called the  head). Mood The quality of a verb that conveys the writers attitude toward a subject. In English, the  indicative mood  is used to make factual statements or pose questions, the  imperative mood  to express a request or command, and the (rarely used)  subjunctive mood  to show a wish, doubt, or anything else contrary to fact. Negation A grammatical construction that contradicts (or negates) part or all of a sentences meaning. Such constructions commonly include the  negative particle  not  or the contracted negative  nt. Noun The part of speech (or word class) that is used to name or identify a person, place, thing, quality, or action. Most nouns have both a singular and plural form, can be preceded by an article and/or one or more adjectives, and can serve as the  head  of a  noun phrase. Number The grammatical contrast between singular and plural forms of nouns, pronouns, determiners, and verbs. Object A noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that receives or is affected by the action of a verb in a sentence. Objective Case The case or function of a pronoun when it is the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal, the object of a preposition, the subject of an infinitive, or an appositive to an object. The objective (or  accusative)  forms of English pronouns are  me, us, you, him, her, it, them, whom, and  whomever. Participle A verb form that functions as an adjective.  Present participles  end in  -ing;  past participles  of  regular verbs  end in  -ed. Particle A word that does not change its form through  inflection  and does not easily fit into the established system of parts of speech. Parts of Speech The traditional term for the categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences. Passive Voice A verb form in which the subject receives the verbs action. Contrast with  active voice. Past Tense A verb tense (the second  principal part  of a verb) indicating the action that occurred in the past and which does not extend into the present. Perfect Aspect A verb construction that describes events occurring in the past but linked to a later time, usually the present. Person The relationship between a subject and its verb, showing whether the subject is speaking about itself (first personI  or  we); being spoken to (second personyou); or being spoken about (third personhe, she, it,  or  they). Personal Pronoun A pronoun that refers to a particular person, group, or thing. Phrase Any small group of words within a sentence or a clause. Plural The form of a noun that typically denotes more than one person, thing, or instance. Possessive Case The inflected form of nouns and pronouns usually indicating ownership, measurement, or source. Also known as  genitive case. Predicate One of the two main parts of a sentence or clause, modifying the subject and including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb. Predicative Adjective An adjective that usually comes after a linking verb and not before a noun. Contrast with an attributive adjective. Prefix A letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that partly indicates its meaning. Prepositional Phrase A group of words made up of a  preposition, its  object, and any of the objects  modifiers. Present Tense A verb tense that expresses action in the present time, indicates habitual actions or expresses general truths. Progressive Aspect A verb phrase made with a form of  be  plus  -ing  that indicates an action or condition continuing in the  present,  past, or  future. Pronoun A word (one of the traditional parts of speech) that takes the place of a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause. Proper Noun A noun belonging to the class of words used as names for unique individuals, events, or places. Quotation The reproduction of the words of a writer or speaker. In a  direct quotation, the words are reprinted exactly and placed in  quotation marks. In an  indirect quotation, the words are  paraphrased  and not put in quotation marks. Regular Verb A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding  -d  or  -ed  (or in some cases  -t) to the  base form. Contrast with an irregular verb. Relative Clause A  clause  introduced by a  relative pronoun  (​which, that, who, whom,  or  whose) or a  relative adverb  (where, when,  or  why). Sentence The largest independent unit of grammar: it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point. A sentence is traditionally (and inadequately) defined as a word or group of words that expresses a complete idea and that includes a subject and a verb. Singular The simplest form of a noun (the form that appears in a dictionary): a category of  number  denoting one person, thing, or instance. Subject The part of a sentence or clause that indicates what it is about. Subjective Case The case of a pronoun when it is the subject of a clause, a subject complement, or an appositive to a subject or a subject complement. The subjective (or  nominative) forms of English pronouns are  I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who  and  whoever. Subjunctive Mood The mood of a verb expressing wishes, stipulating demands, or making statements contrary to fact. Suffix A letter or group of letters added to the end of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending. Superlative The form of an adjective that suggests the most or the least of something. Tense The time of a verbs action or state of being, such as past, present, and future. Transitive Verb A verb that takes a  direct object. Contrast with an intransitive verb. Verb The part of speech (or word class) that describes an action or occurrence or indicates a state of being. Verbal A verb form that functions in a sentence as a noun or a modifier rather than as a verb. Word A sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing, that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single  morpheme  or a combination of morphemes. Word Class A set of words that display the same formal properties, especially their  inflections  and distribution. Similar to (but not synonymous with) the more traditional term  part of speech.